肿瘤微环境及其能量代谢的重编程

20世纪20年代,瓦伯格(Warburg)提出,肿瘤细胞即使在供氧充足的情况下,葡萄糖依旧向乳酸转换,这种代谢称为有氧酵解(aerobic glycolysis)或"Warburg效应(Warburg effect)"。然而,后续越来越多的研究发现,并非所有的肿瘤中均存在"Warburg效应",肿瘤细胞的能量代谢存在明显的多样性。进一步的研究发现,肿瘤组织存在着复杂的微环境,肿瘤组织中不同区域氧的含量、乳酸的浓度及营养物质的供给都不尽相同,但肿瘤细胞却能适应逆境而保持快速生长。这种适应性是通过改变肿瘤细胞的能量代谢方式来实现的,称为能量代谢重编程。现综述了肿瘤微环境及其引起的细胞能量代谢方式的改变。对肿瘤能量代谢特征的研究,将有益于人们从肿瘤细胞能量阻断的角度开展肿瘤的临床治疗,同时对新的抗肿瘤药物的开发也有一定的指导意义。     

谷氨酰胺代谢与肿瘤

“谷氨酰胺代谢”是肿瘤细胞除Warburg效应外又一重要的能量代谢方式。迅速增殖的肿瘤细胞消耗谷氨酰胺（glutamine,Gin）来提供生长和增殖所需的能量和生物大分子原料,维持细胞内氧化还原稳态和参与细胞内信号通路的转导。肿瘤中原癌基因与抑癌基因的突变会影响Gin代谢。结合先进的诊断技术和研究手段将有利于了解肿瘤中Gln的生化代谢,揭示Gin代谢的关键环节,为依赖Gin的肿瘤提供治疗新策略。     

肿瘤细胞能量代谢特点及其意义CSCD

正常细胞代谢所需的能量主要由线粒体氧化磷酸化产生的ATP提供,而肿瘤细胞即便氧供充足也偏好利用增强糖酵解供能。同时,肿瘤细胞对葡萄糖和谷氨酰胺的摄取利用也十分活跃。肿瘤缺氧微环境,癌基因的激活,线粒体功能的抑制以及如炎症、micro RNA等因素共同促成肿瘤细胞糖酵解代谢表型,它不仅为肿瘤细胞提供充足的ATP,还为新肿瘤细胞的构筑提供生物大分子原料,从而利于生长增殖。基于肿瘤能量代谢模式的内在分子机制研究,将揭开靶向肿瘤治疗的新局面。     

肿瘤细胞能量代谢特点及其意义

<正>常细胞代谢所需的能量主要由线粒体氧化磷酸化产生的ATP提供,而肿瘤细胞即便氧供充足也偏好利用增强糖酵解供能。同时,肿瘤细胞对葡萄糖和谷氨酰胺的摄取利用也十分活跃。肿瘤缺氧微环境,癌基因的激活,线粒体功能的抑制以及如炎症、micro RNA等因素共同促成肿瘤细胞糖酵解代谢表型,它不仅为肿瘤细胞提供充足的ATP,还为新肿瘤细胞的构筑提供生物大分子原料,从而利于生长增殖。基于肿瘤能量代谢模式的内在分子机制研究,将揭开靶向肿瘤治疗的新局面。     

能量代谢途径相关基因变异与肿瘤细胞适应性进化

肿瘤细胞的快速增殖是一个极其耗能的过程,尽管如此,肿瘤细胞即便在有氧条件下也主要以糖酵解获取能量(有氧糖酵解),这是肿瘤细胞的显著特征之一。这种产能方式转变导致肿瘤细胞内部发生一系列生理变化,为其快速增殖提供能量物质和用于新细胞合成所需的生物大分子,同时为有效适应肿瘤微环境改变奠定基础。该文通过介绍能量代谢相关基因变异研究进展,基于分子进化视角探讨肿瘤细胞中相关基因可能存在的适应性进化遗传印记,为诠释肿瘤细胞能量代谢方式发生转变的可能机制提供新的视角和证据。     

糖代谢重编程与肿瘤生长CSCD

能量代谢异常是肿瘤细胞的重要特征之一。即使在氧气充足的条件下,高速糖酵解取代氧化磷酸化为肿瘤细胞供能。肿瘤细胞在缺氧微环境、癌症相关基因及信号通路等因素驱动下进行代谢重编程,在满足自身能量需求的同时获得快速增殖所需要的生物大分子及还原力等基础物质,为肿瘤细胞提供了缺氧条件下的生长优势。由不同代谢表型的细胞亚群构成的实体肿瘤具有代谢异质性的特征。本文将综述肿瘤细胞糖代谢重编程的因与果及其代谢异质性,为靶向肿瘤代谢的个体化治疗寻找新的有效靶点。     

糖代谢重编程与肿瘤生长

能量代谢异常是肿瘤细胞的重要特征之一。即使在氧气充足的条件下,高速糖酵解取代氧化磷酸化为肿瘤细胞供能。肿瘤细胞在缺氧微环境、癌症相关基因及信号通路等因素驱动下进行代谢重编程,在满足自身能量需求的同时获得快速增殖所需要的生物大分子及还原力等基础物质,为肿瘤细胞提供了缺氧条件下的生长优势。由不同代谢表型的细胞亚群构成的实体肿瘤具有代谢异质性的特征。本文将综述肿瘤细胞糖代谢重编程的因与果及其代谢异质性,为靶向肿瘤代谢的个体化治疗寻找新的有效靶点。     

生物能量分析仪在肿瘤细胞生物能量代谢中的应用研究

靶向肿瘤细胞代谢过程中关键调控分子抑制肿瘤细胞生长的研究日益成为热点。目前,研究肿瘤细胞氧化磷酸化和有氧糖酵解主要是应用Clark氧电极法测定细胞氧耗率以及对相关中间代谢物的测定,如乳酸和葡萄糖。但是,这些方法测定的指标相对单一,而且过程繁琐。该文详细介绍了生物能量分析仪在研究肿瘤细胞糖酵解和线粒体氧耗率中的应用,并通过研究肿瘤细胞应用阿霉素及相关药物处理后生物能量代谢的变化,深入探讨了这一方法在研究肿瘤细胞生物能量代谢方面中的优越性。研究结果表明,羰基氰–对–三氟甲氧基本腙(carbonylcyanide p-trifluoro methoxyphenylhydrazone,FCCP)的浓度以及细胞数量对于研究肿瘤细胞的氧耗率十分关键,应用阿霉素能够显著抑制肿瘤细胞的有氧糖酵解和线粒体氧耗率。通过该文的介绍,期望能为肿瘤细胞生物能量代谢研究提供进一步的参考。     

肿瘤糖酵解相关microRNA的研究进展

肿瘤细胞与正常细胞的最大区别在于代谢方式的不同,即使在氧供充足的条件下,前者也主要以无氧糖酵解的形式获取能量,以此来为自身的快速生长及增殖提供充足的能量及原料,此效应即为Warburg效应。microRNA(miRNA)是一类存在于细胞内的微小非编码RNA,主要作用是调控基因的表达。随着对其研究的深入,miRNA在肿瘤形成及发展中的作用逐渐被发掘,目前发现miRNA对肿瘤细胞糖酵解过程具有一定的调控作用。本文重在阐述目前有关miRNA在肿瘤代谢方面的研究进展。     

细胞糖代谢方式改变与肿瘤转移的相关性

肿瘤转移是引起肿瘤相关死亡的主要原因,肿瘤细胞的代谢异常在肿瘤转移中扮演重要角色。肿瘤的糖代谢以“Warburg效应”为显著特征,即细胞在有氧条件下也以糖酵解为主要糖代谢途径提供能量。而这种现象在转移性肿瘤细胞中更为突出,表现为葡萄糖的大量摄取、高糖酵解速率和核酸合成速率等,这为肿瘤细胞的快速生长和增殖提供了重要的能量和物质基础。对于肿瘤转移过程中相关代谢改变的研究,将为最终揭示肿瘤转移的机制打下基础。本文综述肿瘤细胞糖代谢中糖酵解、线粒体有氧代谢及磷酸戊糖途径中的变化与肿瘤转移发生的相关性,其结果为进一步从调控肿瘤代谢角度发现新的肿瘤转移控制手段提供了启示。     

13C metabolic flux analysis clarifies distinct metabolic phenotypes of cancer cell spheroid mimicking tumor hypoxia

Cancer cells adapt their intracellular energy metabolism to the oxygen-deprived tumor microenvironment (TME) to ensure tumor progression. This adaptive mechanism has focused attention on the metabolic phenotypes of tumor cells under hypoxic TME for developing novel cancer therapies. Although widely used monolayer (2D) culture does not fully reflect in vivo hypoxic TME, spheroid (3D) culture can produce a milieu similar to the TME in vivo. However, how different metabolic phenotypes are expressed in 3D cultures mimicking tumor hypoxia compared with 2D cultures under hypoxia remains unclear. To address this issue, we investigated the metabolic phenotypes of 2D- and 3D-cultured cancer cells by ¹³C-metabolic flux analysis (¹³C-MFA). Principal component analysis of ¹³C mass isotopomer distributions clearly demonstrated distinct metabolic phenotypes of 3D-cultured cells. ¹³C-MFA clarified that 3D culture significantly upregulated pyruvate carboxylase flux in line with the pyruvate carboxylase protein expression level. On the other hand, 3D culture downregulated glutaminolytic flux. Consistent with our findings, 3D-cultured cells are more resistant to a glutaminase inhibitor than 2D-cultured cells. This study suggests the importance of considering the metabolic characteristics of the particular in vitro model used for research on cancer metabolism.     

Energy metabolism in cancer stem cells

Normal cells mainly rely on oxidative phosphorylation as an effective energy source in the presence of oxygen. In contrast, most cancer cells use less efficient glycolysis to produce ATP and essential biomolecules. Cancer cells gain the characteristics of metabolic adaptation by reprogramming their metabolic mechanisms to meet the needs of rapid tumor growth. A subset of cancer cells with stem characteristics and the ability to regenerate exist throughout the tumor and are therefore called cancer stem cells (CSCs). New evidence indicates that CSCs have different metabolic phenotypes compared with differentiated cancer cells. CSCs can dynamically transform their metabolic state to favor glycolysis or oxidative metabolism. The mechanism of the metabolic plasticity of CSCs has not been fully elucidated, and existing evidence indicates that the metabolic phenotype of cancer cells is closely related to the tumor microenvironment. Targeting CSC metabolism may provide new and effective methods for the treatment of tumors. In this review, we summarize the metabolic characteristics of cancer cells and CSCs and the mechanisms of the metabolic interplay between the tumor microenvironment and CSCs, and discuss the clinical implications of targeting CSC metabolism.     

CPT1A-mediated fatty acid oxidation promotes cell proliferation via nucleoside metabolism in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

As the first rate-limiting enzyme in fatty acid oxidation (FAO), CPT1 plays a significant role in metabolic adaptation in cancer pathogenesis. FAO provides an alternative energy supply for cancer cells and is required for cancer cell survival. Given the high proliferation rate of cancer cells, nucleotide synthesis gains prominence in rapidly proliferating cells. In the present study, we found that CPT1A is a determining factor for the abnormal activation of FAO in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cells. CPT1A is highly expressed in NPC cells and biopsies. CPT1A dramatically affects the malignant phenotypes in NPC, including proliferation, anchorage-independent growth, and tumor formation ability in nude mice. Moreover, an increased level of CPT1A promotes core metabolic pathways to generate ATP, inducing equivalents and the main precursors for nucleotide biosynthesis. Knockdown of CPT1A markedly lowers the fraction of ¹³C-palmitate-derived carbons into pyrimidine. Periodic activation of CPT1A increases the content of nucleoside metabolic intermediates promoting cell cycle progression in NPC cells. Targeting CPT1A-mediated FAO hinders the cell cycle G1/S transition. Our work verified that CPT1A links FAO to cell cycle progression in NPC cellular proliferation, which supplements additional experimental evidence for developing a therapeutic mechanism based on manipulating lipid metabolism.Subject terms: Cancer metabolism, Cell growth     

An update on therapeutic opportunities offered by cancer glycolytic metabolism

Almost all invasive cancers, regardless of tissue origin, are characterized by specific modifications of their cellular energy metabolism. In fact, a strong predominance of aerobic glycolysis over oxidative phosphorylation (Warburg effect) is usually associated with aggressive tumour phenotypes. This metabolic shift offers a survival advantage to cancer cells, since they may continue to produce energy and anabolites even when they are exposed to either transient or permanent hypoxic conditions. Moreover, it ensures a high production rate of glycolysis intermediates, useful as building blocks for fast cell proliferation of cancer cells. This peculiar metabolic profile may constitute an ideal target for therapeutic interventions that selectively hit cancer cells with minimal residual systemic toxicity. In this review we provide an update about some of the most recent advances in the discovery of new bioactive molecules that are able to interfere with cancer glycolysis.     

肿瘤能量代谢机制研究进展

细胞的能量主要来自糖酵解和线粒体的有氧氧化.细胞活性和能量状态密切相关,恶性肿瘤由于其生长迅速,常常出现葡萄糖摄取量增高、糖酵解增加和乳酸堆积现象.通过介绍肿瘤能量代谢机制研究进展,结合代谢成像技术,将会有助于深入揭示肿瘤能量代谢改变与肿瘤进展的因果关联,为靶向能量代谢的肿瘤治疗策略提供新的视野和契机.     

Unraveling the journey of cancer stem cells from origin to metastasis

Cancer biology research over recent decades has given ample evidence for the existence of self-renewing and drug-resistant populations within heterogeneous tumors, widely recognized as cancer stem cells (CSCs). However, a lack of clear understanding about the origin, existence, maintenance, and metastatic roles of CSCs limit efforts towards the development of CSC-targeted therapy. In this review, we describe novel avenues of current CSC biology. In addition to cell fusion and horizontal gene transfer, CSCs are originated by mutations in somatic or differentiated cancer cells, resulting in de-differentiation and reprogramming. Recent studies also provided evidence for the existence of distinct or heterogeneous CSC populations within a single heterogeneous tumor. Our analysis of the literature also opens the doors for a novel hypothesis that CSC populations with specific phenotypes, metabolic profiles, and clonogenic potential metastasize to specific organs.     

Altered metabolism in cancer

Cancer cells have different metabolic requirements from their normal counterparts. Understanding the consequences of this differential metabolism requires a detailed understanding of glucose metabolism and its relation to energy production in cancer cells. A recent study in BMC Systems Biology by Vasquez et al. developed a mathematical model to assess some features of this altered metabolism. Here, we take a broader look at the regulation of energy metabolism in cancer cells, considering their anabolic as well as catabolic needs.     

Quantitative analysis of energy metabolic pathways in MCF-7 breast cancer cells by selected reaction monitoring assay

To investigate the quantitative response of energy metabolic pathways in human MCF-7 breast cancer cells to hypoxia, glucose deprivation, and estradiol stimulation, we developed a targeted proteomics assay for accurate quantification of protein expression in glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, TCA cycle, and pentose phosphate pathways. Cell growth conditions were selected to roughly mimic the exposure of cells in the cancer tissue to the intermittent hypoxia, glucose deprivation, and hormonal stimulation. Targeted proteomics assay allowed for reproducible quantification of 76 proteins in four different growth conditions after 24 and 48 h of perturbation. Differential expression of a number of control and metabolic pathway proteins in response to the change of growth conditions was found. Elevated expression of the majority of glycolytic enzymes was observed in hypoxia. Cancer cells, as opposed to near-normal MCF-10A cells, exhibited significantly increased expression of key energy metabolic pathway enzymes (FBP1, IDH2, and G6PD) that are known to redirect cellular metabolism and increase carbon flux through the pentose phosphate pathway. Our quantitative proteomic protocol is based on a mass spectrometry-compatible acid-labile detergent and is described in detail. Optimized parameters of a multiplex selected reaction monitoring (SRM) assay for 76 proteins, 134 proteotypic peptides, and 401 transitions are included and can be downloaded and used with any SRM-compatible mass spectrometer. The presented workflow is an integrated tool for hypothesis-driven studies of mammalian cells as well as functional studies of proteins, and can greatly complement experimental methods in systems biology, metabolic engineering, and metabolic transformation of cancer cells.     

Metabolic activation triggered by cAMP in MCF-7 cells generates lethal vulnerability to combined oxamate/etomoxir

BackgroundAltered energy metabolism is a biochemical fingerprint of cancer cells, widely recognized as one of the “hallmarks of cancer”. Cancer cells show highly increased rates of glucose uptake and glycolysis, after which the resulting pyruvate is converted to lactate. The maintenance of this metabolic asset is warranted by lactate dehydrogenase A (LDH-A) and for this reason the development of novel LDH-targeted anticancer therapeutics is underway. However, possible interference in cancer cell metabolism could also arise from cAMP signaling pathway, which could be activated by either oncogenic induction or exogenously, as a result of microenvironment-derived stimuli, increasing cellular cAMP levels. This study aimed at evaluating the impact of activated cAMP signaling pathway on the efficacy of an LDH-targeted anticancer approach.MethodsWe exogenously activated cAMP signaling in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells and explored the metabolic interplay between LDH-A and cAMP pathway.ResultsIn cAMP-activated cells, we evidenced changes in energy metabolism which reduced their response to LDH inhibition. Interestingly, these experiments also highlighted a potential vulnerability state of treated cells.ConclusionscAMP-induced metabolic changes made MCF-7 cells a preferential target of a drug combination treatment which should not affect normal cell viability.General significancecAMP is a well-recognized second messenger of the pro-inflammatory cascade. The obtained results are relevant in consideration of the crucial role played by inflammation in normal breast cell transformation and in cancer progression. Furthermore, they corroborate the idea of exploiting the metabolic changes observed in cancer cells to obtain a therapeutic advantage.