模拟氮沉降和接种外生菌根真菌对马尾松(Pinus massoniana)幼苗营养元素的影响

量化植物地上部和地下部元素含量对于理解和预测植物养分平衡如何响应大气氮沉降的变化至关重要。通过盆栽试验研究了氮沉降增加背景下外生菌根真菌对马尾松幼苗营养元素的影响。对马尾松幼苗进行了接种两种外生菌根真菌：（彩色豆马勃（Pisolithus tinctorius,Pt）与厚环乳牛肝菌（Suillus grevillei,Sg））以及4种氮素浓度添加：0 kg N hm^-2a^-1（N0）、正常氮沉降30 kg N hm^-2a^-1（N30）、中度氮沉降60 kg N hm^-2a^-1（N60）、重度氮沉降90 kg N hm^-2a^-1（N90）,共12个处理,测定了马尾松地上部和地下部大量元素和微量元素的含量。结果表明：施氮改变了营养元素在马尾松幼苗地上部和地下部的含量,马尾松幼苗磷（P）、钙（Ca）、铁（Fe）、锰（Mn）等元素均在N60时达到临界值,而当输入的量超过了马尾松对氮的需求时,氮沉降会使马尾松营养元素含量较最适浓度时降低,地上部碳（C）随施氮浓度的升高先升高后降低,N随施氮浓度的升高而升高,根系和叶片钾（K）、Ca、镁（Mg）均随施氮浓度的升高而降低,施氮也降低了根系C及微量元素的含量。但在同一施氮浓度下,接种外生菌根真菌（EMF）后能够提高大多数元素的含量,N90时接种厚环乳牛肝菌（Sg）和彩色豆马勃（Pt）的叶片N含量与对照相比分别提高112.6%和138.6%,根系N含量分别提高73.1%、71.6%;N60时接种Sg和Pt的植株叶片P含量比不施氮未接种对照分别提高了166.3%、132.9%,根系P含量分别提高了40.8%、38.5%。EMF能够维持植物养分平衡,从而降低高施氮量对植物的影响效果。这为未来气候变化情景中氮沉降增加下接种EMF可以调节植物元素含量,从而达到更适应环境的元素平衡来促进生长提供理论依据。     

The functioning of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the field: linkages in space and time

Individual trees, either of the same or different species, can be linked spatially and temporally by the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi that allow carbon and nutrients to pass among them and promote forest establishment following disturbance. Spatial and temporal linkages between plants influence the function of ECM fungi in the field. Studies indicate that ECM linkages can reduce plant competition for resources, promote forest recovery, and influence the pattern of plant succession. The degree of influence depends on many factors, including the composition and arrangement of the vegetative community and soil and climatic conditions. Management practices that create intense disturbance and loss of organic matter or promote the introduction of non-ectomycorrhizal host species can decrease the ability of plants to form linkages with ECM fungi. Management practices that retain living trees and shrubs and input of organic matter provide the energy source and substrate necessary for ECM linkages. More research is needed to determine the degree to which ECM fungal linkages occur in the field and their role in ecosystem function and long-term health.     

The development and multiple uses of a standardised bioassay method to select hypocrealean fungi for biological control of aphids

A technically standardised bioassay method was designed, evaluated and used to assess virulence and host range of hypocrealean fungi against aphids. A track mounted sprayer was used to apply conidia because hand held versions of the same sprayer can be used for field applications, thereby allowing the outcome from laboratory experiments to predict activity in the field accurately. Eighteen fungal isolates were assessed in single concentration bioassays against the black bean aphid Aphis fabae Scopoli. Isolates comprised commercially available mycoinsecticides (based on Beauveria bassiana and Lecanicillium longisporum) and isolates of B. bassiana, Lecanicillium spp., Paecilomyces fumosoroseus and Metarhizium anisopliae. Aphid mortality was in excess of 80% for 15 isolates, and HRI 1.72 (L. longipsorum), Z11 (P. fumosoroseus), Mycotech strain GHA (B. bassiana) and ARSEF 2879 (B. bassiana) were studied further. Multiple concentration bioassays identified HRI 1.72 as the most virulent isolate against A. fabae with significantly smaller LC₅₀ and LT₅₀ values compared to other isolates. A precise LC₅₀ value (2.95 × 10² conidia ml⁻¹) was calculated for HRI 1.72 using a second multiple concentration assay with smaller concentrations of conidia. The four isolates were applied at a single concentration (1 × 10⁸ conidia ml⁻¹) against Myzus persicae, A. fabae, Acyrthosiphon pisum, Metopolophium dirhodum, Sitobion avenae and Rhopalosiphum padi. A ranking of aphid susceptibility was obtained, such that S. avenae > M. persicae, A. pisum, A. fabae > R. padi. Results indicate the importance of standardising bioassay methods to reduce bioassay variability without compromising the ability to use the bioassay to investigate fungus–host interactions under varying abiotic and biotic conditions.     

The prevalence of non-indigenous species in southern California embayments and their effects on benthic macroinvertebrate communities

The prevalence of non-indigenous species (NIS) in southern California embayments was assessed from 123 Van Veen grab samples collected in nine bays and harbors during the summer of 1998. NIS occurred in all but two samples. They accounted for only 4.3% of the 633 taxa but contributed 27.5% of the abundance. There was no significant difference in the proportion of NIS abundance among ports harboring large vessels, small boat marinas, and areas where boats were not moored. Three species accounted for 92% of the NIS abundance: a spionid polychaete worm Pseudopolydora paucibranchiata, a mytilid bivalve Musculista senhousia, and a semelid bivalve Theora ubrica. The NIS did not appear to have a negative impact at the overall community level since NIS abundance was positively correlated with the abundance and richness of other species. This may be due to biogenic structures built by P. paucibranchiata and M. senhousia that enhance the abundances of other macrofauna.     

Gas exchange and photosynthesis of Eucalyptus camaldulensis seedlings inoculated with different ectomycorrhizal symbionts

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. seedlings inoculated with Pisolithus tinctorius (Pers.) Coker & Couch and Thelephora terrestris Ehrl. per Fr. were grown in well watered soil (_s –0.03 MPa) or subjected to a long-term soil water stress of up to –1.0 MPa over 13-week period in a glasshouse. After 13 weeks, all seedling containers were watered to field capacity and then water was withheld from the E. camaldulensis seedlings to induce a short-term drought. Diurnal measurements of seedling photosynthesis rate (A), leaf stomatal conductance (g) and leaf water potential (_p) were completed before, during, and after the short term drought. Although they were growing in an equal soil volume, photosynthesis rate (A), leaf stomatal conductance and leaf water potential (_p) of larger seedlings with P. tinctorius ectomycorrhizae were similar to those of smaller seedlings colonized with T. terrestris during the short-term drought period. Seedlings inoculated with Pisolithus tinctorius maintained higher photosynthesis rates over the course of the short-term drought. Thus, P. tinctorius ectomycorrhizae appear to be more efficient than those of T. terrestris in assisting seedlings to maintain gas exchange and photosynthesis under limited soil moisture conditions.     

野外模拟酸雨胁迫下接种外生菌根真菌对马尾松幼苗的缓解作用

外生菌根真菌能够提高宿主植物对外界环境胁迫的抵抗力。主要探讨野外条件下外生菌根真菌对酸雨胁迫下马尾松(Pinus massoniana)幼苗生长、养分元素以及表层土壤的影响,以期为酸雨严重区马尾松林恢复提供科学依据。以2年生马尾松幼苗为材料,采用原位试验,共设置6个处理:p H5.6(对照)处理未接种、对照处理接种、p H4.5酸雨处理未接种、p H4.5酸雨处理接种、p H3.5酸雨处理未接种、p H3.5酸雨处理接种。研究表明:(1)酸雨处理与对照处理相比显著降低了非菌根苗总生物量及各部位生物量(根、茎、叶),对株高无显著影响,接种外生菌根真菌可以缓解酸雨对马尾松幼苗生长的不利影响;(2)与对照处理相比,酸雨处理的非菌根苗的针叶中N、P、Ca含量升高,Mg含量降低,根系中N、P、Ca含量降低,Mg含量随p H的降低先升高后降低。接种外生菌根真菌显著提高了p H3.5酸雨处理的马尾松幼苗根系中N、P、Ca、Mg含量,而对针叶中N、P、Ca、Mg含量无显著影响。(3)在非菌根土壤中,p H3.5酸雨处理与对照处理相比显著降低了土壤中有机质、速效磷、速效钾、可溶性碳、可溶性氮、铵态氮、硝态氮含量,而接种外生菌根真菌显著提高了上述指标。酸雨对土壤阳离子交换量无显著影响。总而言之,接种外生菌根真菌促进了酸雨处理的马尾松幼苗生长、缓解了酸雨对马尾松幼苗养分元素和表层土壤的不利影响,由此可见接种外生菌根真菌是减轻酸雨对马尾松危害的一个重要途径。     

The effect of ectomycorrhizal fungi on Zn uptake and distribution in seedlings of Pinus sylvestris L

Seedlings of pine, infected with two different ectomycorrhizal fungi, Suillus bovinus (Fr.) O. Kuntze and an unidentified isolate (BP), were exposed to various external Zn concentrations. An additional strain of S. bovinus, cultured on a Zn-enriched medium, was also used. The effect of mycorrhizal associations on Zn uptake and distribution within the plant was determined by AAS.The results show that nonmycorrhizal seedlings have the capability to control the uptake and translocation of Zn to the shoot until the external Zn concentration reaches a threshold level, where no limitation of uptake is possible. Excess Zn is accumulated in the root system to protect the shoot against toxic tissue concentrations. The effect of an ectomycorrhizal infection on Zn uptake and distribution depends on (1) the fungal species (2) the external concentration and (3) the Zn content of the fungal culture medium. Under conditions of low external Zn supply, especially a mycorrhizal infection with S. bovinus led to an increased Zn uptake in root and needles of Pinus sylvestris. Under high external conditions the mycobionts varied considerably in their capability to reduce the transport of Zn to the shoot. Only by an infection with S. bovinus the plant was able to maintain the shoot tissue concentration on a low level. This effect can be enhanced by pretreatment of S. bovinus with high Zn concentrations.     

Hyphal mats formed by two ectomycorrhizal fungi and their association with Douglas-fir seedlings: A case study

The ectomycorrhizal fungi Gautieria monticola and Hysterangium setchellii both form dense hyphal mats in coniferous forest soils of the Pacific Northwest. We recently observed that all Douglas-fir seedlings found under the canopy of a maturing 60–75 year stand were associated with mats formed by ectomycorrhizal fungi. The significance of these mat communities in relation to seedling establishment and survival is discussed.     

Impact of wildfire return interval on the ectomycorrhizal resistant propagules communities of a Mediterranean open forest

Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi, in particular their spores and other resistant propagules, play an important role in secondary succession processes that facilitate regeneration after disturbance events. In this study, the effects of high and low wildfire frequencies (respectively short and long fire return intervals) on the resistant propagules communities (RPCs) of a Mediterranean open pine forest were compared. Soil samples were collected in four mountain sites with different fire return intervals and used to test ectomycorrhiza development in two hosts, Pinus pinaster and Quercus suber. RPCs were characterized by direct sequencing of fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions from individual ECM root tips. Eighteen ECM species were detected in the bioassay. The most frequently found fungi were Cenococcum geophilum, Inocybe jacobi, Thelephora terrestris, Tomentella ellisii on both hosts and Rhizopogon luteolus and R. roseolus on maritime pine. A short fire return interval reduced the species richness of the ECM community found on Q. suber, promoted species like R. roseolus and reduced the abundance of other species (e.g. R. luteolus). The abundance of I. jacobi was positively affected by long fire return interval, but decreased significantly with recurrent fires. These results indicate that changes in fire frequency can alter the structure, composition and diversity of ECM communities, which could compromise the resilience of the ecosystem in highly disturbed areas.     

The effects of flooding on the formation of ectomycorrhizae in Pinus sylvestris seedlings

Pinus sylvestris seedlings, grown in a vertical petri dish system, were inoculated with five different mycorrhizal fungi. Half of the root system in the petri dish was subjected to periodic flooding, and mycorrhizal colonization was studied. Thelephora terrestris, Laccaria laccata, and Hebeloma crustuliniforme were not sensitive to flooding, whereas Suillus flavidus and S. bovinus were highly sensitive. The latter failed to colonize the root even when flooded for only 2 min per day four times a week.     

Ectomycorrhizal fungal species and strains differ in their ability to produce free and conjugated polyamines

Production of free and conjugated polyamines by one strain of Laccaria proxima (Boud.) Maire, three strains (H, O, K) of Paxillus involutus (Batsch) Fr., and one strain of Pisolithus tinctorius was studied in vitro. Spermidine (Spd) was the main polyamine in the 4-week-old mycelium of all the fungi. It was mainly present in the free form, but it also occurred in conjugated forms. Paxillus involutus strain H released large amounts of free putrescine (Put), and the Pisolithus tinctorius released a compound probably related to cadaverine (Cad). On the other hand, these two fungi contained less conjugated polyamines than the other fungi. In addition to the amounts, the forms (perchloric acid soluble and insoluble) of conjugated polyamines in the mycelium varied between species and strains. L. proxima contained nearly as much insoluble conjugated Spd as free Spd, whereas Paxillus involutus strains O and K contained relatively large amounts of soluble conjugated Spd. The results suggest that ectomycorrhizal fungal species and strains differ in their ability and need to produce conjugated polyamines. The small amounts of soluble conjugated polyamines found in the culture filtrates indicate that some specific conjugated polyamines may be involved in polyamine translocation across the plasma membrane.     

Sensitivity to Cd or Zn of host and symbiont of ectomycorrhizal Pinus sylvestris L. (Scots pine) seedlings

Pinus sylvestris seedlings infected with either the ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungus Paxillus involutus or Suillus variegatus were exposed to a range of Cd or Zn concentrations. This was done to investigate the relationship between the sensitivity of ECM fungi and their host plants over a wide range of concentrations. P. involutus ameliorated the toxicity of Cd and Zn to P. sylvestris with respect to root length, despite significant inhibition of ECM infection levels by Cd (Cd EC₅₀ [effective concentration which inhibits ECM infection by 50%] values were: P. involutus 3.7 μg g^-1 Cd; S. variegatus 2.3 μg g^-1 Cd). ECM infection by P. involutus also decreased Cd and Zn transport to the plant shoots at potentially toxic concentrations and also influenced the proportion of Zn transported to the roots and shoots, with a higher proportion retained in the roots of the seedlings. ECM infection did increase host biomass production, but this was not affected by the presence of Cd or Zn. Root and shoot biomass production by P. sylvestris, in both the presence and absence of ECM fungi, was unaffected by Cd and Zn at all concentrations tested. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Survival of inoculated Laccaria bicolor in competition with native ectomycorrhizal fungi and effects on the growth of outplanted Douglasfir seedlings

The survival, development and mycorrhizal efficiency of a selected strain of Laccaria bicolor along with naturally occurring ectomycorrhizal fungi in a young plantation of Douglas fir was examined. Symbionts were identified and their respective colonization abilities were determined. Eight species of symbiotic fungi, which may have originated in adjacent coniferous forests, were observed on the root systems. Mycorrhizal diversity differed between inoculated (5 taxa) and control (8 taxa) seedlings. Ectomycorrhizal fungi which occurred naturally in the nursery on control seedlings (Thelephora terrestris and Suillus sp.) did not survive after outplanting. Both inoculated and naturally occurring Laccaria species, as well as Cenococcum geophilum, survived on the old roots and colonized the newly formed roots, limiting the colonization by other naturally occurring fungi. Other fungi, such as Paxillus involutus, Scleroderma citrinum and Hebeloma sp. preferentially colonized the old roots near the seedling's collar. Russulaceae were found mainly in the middle section of the root system. Mycorrhizal colonization by Laccaria species on inoculated seedlings (54%) was significantly greater than on controls (13%) which were consequently dominated by the native fungi. Significant differences (up to 239%) were found in the growth of inoculated seedlings, especially in root and shoot weight, which developed mainly during the second year after outplanting. Seedling growth varied with the species of mycorrhizae and with the degree of root colonization. Competitiveness and effectiveness of the introduced strain on improving growth performances of seedlings are discussed.     

The Plasmodium falciparum heat shock protein 40, Pfj4, associates with heat shock protein 70 and shows similar heat induction and localisation patterns

Human cerebral malaria is caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum, which establishes itself within erythrocytes. The normal body temperature in the human host could constitute a possible source of heat stress to the parasite. Molecular chaperones belonging to the heat shock protein (Hsp) class are thought to be important for parasite subsistence in the host cell, as the expression of some members of this family has been reported to increase upon heat shock. In this paper we investigated the possible functions of the P. falciparum heat shock protein DnaJ homologue Pfj4, a type II Hsp40 protein. We analysed the ability of Pfj4 to functionally replace Escherichia coli Hsp40 proteins in a dnaJ cbpA mutant strain. Western analysis on cellular fractions of P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes revealed that Pfj4 expression increased upon heat shock. Localisation studies using immunofluorescence and immuno-electron microscopy suggested that Pfj4 and P. falciparum Hsp70, PfHsp70-1, were both localised to the parasites nucleus and cytoplasm. In some cases, Pfj4 was also detected in the erythrocyte cytoplasm of infected erythrocytes. Immunoprecipitation studies and size exclusion chromatography indicated that Pfj4 and PfHsp70-1 may directly or indirectly interact. Our results suggest a possible involvement of Pfj4 together with PfHsp70-1 in cytoprotection, and therefore, parasite survival inside the erythrocyte.     

Effect of time of inoculation on in vitro ectomycorrhizal colonization and nodule initiation in Acacia holosericea seedlings

The complex interactions that occur in systems with more than one type of symbiosis were studied using one isolate of Bradyrhizobium sp. and the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius (Pers.) Coker and Couch inoculated on to the roots of Acacia holosericea A. Cunn. ex G. Don in vitro. After a single inoculation with Bradyrhizobium sp., bacteria typically entered the roots by forming infection threads in the root hair cells via the curling point of the root hair and/ or after intercellular penetration. Sheath formation and intercellular penetration were observed on Acacia roots after a single inoculation with Pisolithus tinctorius but no radial elongation of epidermal cells. Simultaneous inoculation with both microorganisms resulted in nodules and ectomycorrhiza on the root system, occasionally on the same lateral root. On lateral roots bearing nodules and ectomycorrhiza, the nodulation site was characterized by the presence of a nodule meristem and the absence of an infection thread; sheath formation and Hartig net development occurred regularly in the region of the roots adjacent to nodules. Prior inoculation with Bradyrhizobium sp. did not inhibit ectomycorrhizal colonization in root segments adjacent to nodules in which nodule meristems and infection threads were clearly present. Conversely, in ectomycorrhizae inoculated by bacteria, the nodule meristem and the infection thread were typically absent. These results show that simultaneous inoculation with both microorganisms inhibits infection thread development, thus conferring an advantage on fungal hyphae in the competition for infection sites. This suggests that fungal hyphae can modify directly and/or indirectly the recognition factors leading to nodule meristem initiation and infection thread development.     

The effects of phosphorus nutrition and soil pH on the growth of some ancient woodland indicator plants and their interaction with competitor species

The forest under-storey herbs Anemone nemorosa, Lamiastrum galeobdolon and Veronica montana are generally considered indicator species of old, broadleaved woodland sites where the soil fertility is often low. In a glasshouse bioassay, however, all three species not only showed large positive growth responses to supplied P concentrations (0–10mgL ^–1) solutions, but also tolerated high P concentrations (20–40mgL ^–1), well above those normally found in their natural habitat. Plants responded by raising the concentrations of P in their shoot and root tissues and increasing their biomass, resulting in an increased P uptake. A shade-tolerant competitor species, Urtica dioica, also grew vigorously across the full range of P concentrations, restricting the growth of the woodland species. This emphasises the difficulty of establishing semi-natural woodland vegetation in the presence of competitor species, for example in situations where new woodlands are planted on fertile ex-agricultural soils containing large residual concentrations of P. The influence of soil pH on the growth and nutrient relations of A. nemorosa, L. galeobdolon, V. montana, Poa trivialisandU. dioicawas determined in a separate experiment using an ex-arable soil as the growing medium with pH levels adjusted from 7.4 to 5.8 and 4.3 respectively. Acidifying the soil enhanced growth, but reduced the concentrations of N, P and K in the leaves of all three woodland species, probably due to dilution of these minerals in the increased dry matter production. The competitor species (P. trivialis and U. dioica) responded in similar manner to the woodland indicator species. These results suggest that manipulating soil pH as a means of facilitating the establishment of woodland indicator species in new farm woods is unlikely, in the short term, to be effective where competitor species are present.     

Effects of isolates of ectomycorrhizal fungi and endophytic Mycelium radicis atrovirens that were dominant in soil from disturbed sites on growth of Betula platyphylla var. japonica seedlings

Effects of ectomycorrhizal fungi and endophytic Mycelium radicis atrovirens Melin (MRA) on growth of Betula platyphylla var. japonica seedlings were investigated under aseptic culture conditions. Three isolates of ectomycorrhizal fungi and two isolates of MRA were used. One MRA isolate was Phialocephala fortinii. Previous field work revealed that these isolates were dominant on the roots of B. platyphylla var. japonica seedlings grown in a mineral subsoil that had been exposed by the removal of surface soil. After a 100-day incubation, the growth of the seedlings was significantly enhanced by the colonization of these ectomycorrhizal fungal isolates as compared with uninoculated seedlings. In contrast, the growth of seedlings was retarded by the colonization of the MRA isolates. The growth of seedlings that were co-inoculated with ectomycorrhizal fungi and MRA was similar to that of uninoculated seedlings in most cases. These results suggest that ectomycorrhizal fungi have a beneficial effect on the growth of B. platyphylla var. japonica seedlings and that they suppress the deleterious effect of MRA. Thus, these ectomycorrhizal fungi probably have an important role in establishing B. platyphylla var. japonica seedlings during the initial stage of re-vegetation following site disturbance by the removal of surface soil.     

连续三年夜间增温和施氮对云杉外生菌根及菌根真菌多样性的影响

以西南亚高山针叶林建群种粗枝云杉(Picea asperata)为研究对象,采用红外加热模拟增温结合外施氮肥(NH₄NO₃ 25 g N m^-2 a^-1)的方法,研究连续3a夜间增温和施肥对云杉幼苗外生菌根侵染率、土壤外生菌根真菌生物量及其群落多样性的影响。结果表明:夜间增温对云杉外生菌根侵染率的影响具有季节性及根级差异。夜间增温对春季(2011年5月)云杉1级根,夏季(2011年7月)和秋季(2010年10月)云杉2级根侵染率影响显著。除2011年7月1级根外,施氮对云杉1、2级根侵染率无显著影响。夜间增温对土壤中外生菌根真菌的生物量和群落多样性无显著影响,施氮及增温与施氮联合处理使土壤中外生菌根真菌生物量显著降低,但却提高了外生菌根真菌群落的多样性。这说明云杉幼苗外生菌根侵染率对温度较敏感,土壤外生菌根真菌生物量及其群落多样性对施氮较敏感。这为进一步研究该区域亚高山针叶林地下过程对全球气候变化的响应机制提供了科学依据。     

Quantities and types of ectomycorrhizal and endophytic fungi associated with Betula platyphylla var. japonica seedlings during the initial stage of establishment of vegetation after disturbance

Ectomycorrhizal and endophytic fungi of Betula platyphylla Sukatchev var. japonica Hara seedlings were investigated by bioassay using soils from sites where the surface layer had been removed by destructive disturbances. Soil samples were taken from sites A, B, C and D, where 1, 2–3, 4–5, and 7–8 years, respectively had passed since disturbance. Naturally regenerated B. platyphylla var. japonica seedlings grew at sites C and D, but not at sites A or B. The percentages of ectomycorrhizal formation in seedlings were significantly lower in the soils from site A (4%) and site B (13%), compared to those in the soils from site C (53%) and site D (37%). The numbers of ectomycorrhizal morphologic types in sites A, B, C, and D were eight, five, one, and seven, respectively. The same dominant type of ectomycorrhiza was found in sites C and D, and this type was different from those in sites A and B. The frequencies of colonization of seedling roots by endophytic fungi, especially Mycelium radicis atrovirens Melin (MRA) in soils from sites A and B were 31 and 33%, respectively; these frequencies were significantly higher than those for site C (0%) and site D (2%). During the initial stage of establishment of vegetation following disturbance, the quantities and types of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the field that have the potential to associate with B. platyphylla var. japonica might rapidly change after invasion of the host plant. Ectomycorrhizal fungi seemed to compete with endophytic MRA fungi for colonization of the roots of B. platyphylla var. japonica seedlings.     

Seasonal dynamics of ectomycorrhizal fungus assemblages on oak seedlings in the southeastern Appalachian Mountains

The potential for seasonal dynamics in ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungal assemblages has important implications for the ecology of both the host trees and the fungal associates. We compared EM fungus distributions on root systems of out-planted oak seedlings at two sites in mixed southeastern Appalachian Mountain forests at the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory in North Carolina, from samples taken in mid-July and early September. Species level EM fungus type specificity, and identification in some cases, was enabled by direct sequencing of the mycobionts from the seedling roots. Seventy-four EM fungal ITS types were documented, most of which occurred only in the midsummer or early-fall samples, respectively. Cenococcum geophilum (morphotyped) was ubiquitously present and accounted for the majority of root tips sampled. Abundance and relative frequency of types other than C. geophilum were significantly higher in the July samples, while C. geophilum was significantly more frequent and abundant in September. Several generalistic dominants were found fairly equally at both sites and on both sample dates. Other taxa with relatively high frequency were recovered from both sites and tree seedling species, but were reliable indicators occurring primarily in the July sample (e.g., Laccaria cf laccata). Notable shifts in mycobiont dominance were apparent in relation to sample date, including increases in Cortinarius spp. richness, decreases in Thelephoraceae richness, and the disappearance of Amanita spp. types in the early fall compared to midsummer samples. However, diversity and rarity were high and differences in overall community composition (other than C. geophilum) by season were not significant based on multi-response permutation procedures. Although these results based on a single growing season are preliminary, changes in abundance and frequency, detection of significant indicator species, and the apparent systematic affinities of shifting EM types support the potential for seasonal variability in EM associations in this system.