Woody Encroachment Removal from Midwestern Oak Savannas Alters Understory Diversity across Space and Time

Recovering biodiversity is a common goal during restoration; however, for many ecosystems, it is not well understood how restoration influences species diversity across space and time. I examined understory species diversity and composition after woody encroachment removal in a large-scale savanna restoration experiment in central Iowa, United States. Over a 4-year time series, restoration had profound effects across space and time, increasing richness at local and site-level scales. Restoration sites had increased α (within sample) Simpson's diversity and α and γ (site level) species richness relative to control sites, although γ and β (among sample) Simpson's diversity, β richness, and α species evenness were not affected. Changes in richness were driven by graminoids at the α and γ scales and woody species (and some evidence for forbs) at the α scale. Interestingly, indicator species analysis revealed that at least some species from all functional groups were promoted by restoration, although no species were significant indicators of pre-treatment or control sites. Both savanna and nonsavanna species were indicators of restored sites. Restoration promoted exotic species at both scales, although species with spring phenologies were unaffected. Woody encroachment removal may be a means to promote species establishment in savannas; however, in this study, it resulted in establishment and proliferation of native and exotic and savanna and nonsavanna species. Future work might consider reintroduction of key savanna species to supplement those that have established. Work like this demonstrates the utility of restoration experiments for conducting research on large- and multiscale processes, such as species diversity.     

Phylogenetically and functionally diverse species mixes beget diverse experimental prairies,whether from seeds or plugs

Phylogenetic and functional diversity are relevant for restoration planning, as they influence important ecosystem functions and services. However, it is unknown whether initial phylogenetic and functional diversity of restorations as planned and planted are maintained over time, that is, the extent to which diversity of the restoration planting is reflected in the diversity of the resulting plant community. Furthermore, in the tallgrass prairie, many restorations are planted from seed. Among-species variation in emergence and establishment affects the transition from seed mixes to realized plant communities in these restorations. We evaluated emergence and early establishment of experimental communities in a biodiversity plot experiment designed to test how phylogenetic and functional diversity influence restoration outcomes. We planted the same experimental communities starting from both seeds and plugs to assess differences in establishment. Our results suggest that phylogenetically and functionally diverse species mixes tend to produce phylogenetically and functionally diverse restored plant communities. After 3 years, experimental communities generally maintained their phylogenetic and functional diversity from seed and plug mixes to established vegetation, despite declines in species richness. While plots planted from seeds had on average 1.3 fewer species than plots planted from plugs, phylogenetic and functional diversity did not significantly differ between the two. Furthermore, most species exhibited no significant differences in percent cover when planted from seeds or plugs. Seeds are generally more cost-effective for restoration than plugs, and our results indicate these two establishment methods achieved similar biodiversity outcomes.     

Monitoring fungi in ecological restorations of coastal Indiana,U.S.A.

Monitoring of ecological restorations has rarely focused on fungi. In this study, we conduct a first‐ever monitoring of macrofungi in ecological restorations of coastal Indiana (U.S.A.) and present an approach and considerations that can be followed elsewhere. Forty‐two sites were surveyed over a 2‐year period for the presence of saprotrophic, mycorrhizal, and parasitic macrofungi. Sites included those considered to be restoration, prerestoration, or reference and were in wooded, semiwooded, or grassland habitats. With 1,103 observations, 277 species of fungi were identified. Most fungi were found in wooded habitats though some were in grassland restorations. Invasive plant cover negatively impacted fungal species richness. Monitored sites were compared to a set of reference sites using two different similarity indices (overlap and Jaccard), as well as the ratios of different fungal functional guilds, revealing that choice of index can impact how restorations are perceived to match targets. Last, we present a novel, tractable, and conservative way to assess and rank sites by the functional trait guilds of fungi. We show that such an approach can provide important additional information about the success of restorations such that functional guild ratios could be used as an indicator of restoration progress early‐on while functional values are better used in later phases.     

Plant functional diversity mediates the effects of vegetation and soil properties on community-level plant nitrogen use in the restoration of semiarid sandy grassland

Species-rich plant communities use nitrogen (N) more efficiently in grassland ecosystems; however, the role of plant functional diversity in affecting community level plant N-use has received little attention. We examined plant N content, stock and N-use efficiency at community-level along a restoration gradient of sandy grassland (mobile dune, semi-fixed dune, fixed dune and grassland) in Horqin Sand Land, northern China. We used the functional trait-based approach to examine how plant functional diversity, reflected by the most abundant species’ traits (community-weighted mean, CWM) and the dispersion of functional trait values (FDis), affected N-use efficiency in sandy grassland restoration. We further used the structure equation model (SEM) to evaluate the direct or indirect effects of plant species richness, biomass, functional diversity and soil properties on community-level plant N-use efficiency. We found that plant biomass and its N stock increased following sandy grassland restoration, and there were lower plant N content and higher N-use efficiency in semi-fixed dune, fixed dune and grassland as compared with mobile dune. N-use efficiency was positively associated with plant species richness, biomass, CWM plant height, CWM leaf C:N, FDis and soil gradient, but SEM results showed that species richness, CWM leaf C:N, plant biomass and FDis controlled by soil properties were the main factors exerting direct effects. CWM plant height also had a positive effect on N-use efficiency through its indirect effect on plant biomass. Soil gradient increased N-use efficiency through an indirect effect on vegetation rather than a direct effect. Final SEM models based on different plant functional diversity explained over 74% of variances in N-use efficiency. Effects of plant functional diversity on N-use efficiency supported both the mass ratio hypothesis and the complementarity hypothesis. Our results clearly highlight the important role of plant functional diversity in mediating the effects of vegetation and soil properties on community level plant N-use in sandy grassland ecosystems.     

Effects of Stream Restoration on Woody Riparian Vegetation of Southern Appalachian Mountain Streams,North Carolina,U.S.A

Riparian revegetation, such as planting woody seedlings or live stakes, is a nearly ubiquitous component of stream restoration projects in the United States. Though evaluations of restoration success usually focus on in‐stream ecosystems, in order to understand the full impacts of restoration the effects on riparian ecosystems themselves must be considered. We examined the effects of stream restoration revegetation measures on riparian ecosystems of headwater mountain streams in forested watersheds by comparing riparian vegetation structure and composition at reference, restored, and degraded sites on nine streams. According to mixed model analysis of variance (ANOVA), there was a significant effect of site treatment on riparian species richness, basal area, and canopy cover, but no effect on stem density. Vegetation characteristics at restored sites differed from those of reference sites according to all metrics (i.e. basal area, canopy cover, and species composition) except species richness and stem density. Restored and degraded sites were structurally similar, with some overlap in species composition. Restored sites were dominated by Salix sericea and Cornus amomum (species commonly planted for revegetation) and a suite of disturbance‐adapted species also dominant at degraded sites. Differences between reference and restored sites might be due to the young age of restored sites (average 4 years since restoration), to reassembly of degraded site species composition at restored sites, or to the creation of a novel anthropogenic ecosystem on these headwater streams. Additional research is needed to determine if this anthropogenic riparian community type persists as a resilient novel ecosystem and provides valued riparian functions.     

Grazing Gradient versus Restoration Succession of Leymus chinensis (Trin.) Tzvel. Grassland in Inner Mongolia

Grazing‐induced degradation of grasslands is the primary impediment to the socioeconomic development of Inner Mongolia. It affects the entire environment of northern China. Understanding grassland dynamics is necessary for restoration and sustainable management of these degraded ecosystems. The recovery dynamics of a degraded Leymus chinensis (Trin.) Tzvel. grassland after removal of grazing was studied in comparison with its spatial variation along a grazing gradient, using its climax community as a benchmark. The species composition, diversity, and biomass of the grassland vegetation, as well as the attributes (height, density, and individual mass) of major species, were examined on the eight sites along the grazing gradient and in the recovering grassland over 11 years. The spatial pattern of grassland vegetation along the grazing gradient closely reflected its recovery trajectory over time. Both the spatial and the temporal processes exhibited the same shift in species dominance in association with grazing removal or less grazing intensity. Grassland degradation was accompanied by an increase in species density and a decrease in species size; this trend was reversed during recovery. This result suggested that the degraded grassland is highly resilient and that restoration could occur naturally by reducing or excluding grazing animals. However, some differences existed between the spatial and the temporal processes. Species richness was high on the light‐ or no‐grazing sites along the gradient, but varied little during the recovery of the degraded grassland. Species evenness was high under moderate to light grazing along the gradient and was high at the beginning of the recovery period but not at the end. Although standing biomass improved significantly during the recovery period, it did not change significantly along the grazing gradient. These observed discrepancies were related to the intrinsic difference in the spatial versus temporal processes and are discussed together with the advantage/disadvantage of the grazing gradient versus dynamic monitoring methods in grassland dynamics studies.     

Mycorrhizal suppression alters plant productivity and forb establishment in a grass-dominated prairie restoration

A fundamental goal of restoration is the re-establishment of plant diversity representative of native vegetation. However, many prairie restorations or Conservation Reserve Program sites have been seeded with warm-season grasses, leading to grass-dominated, low-diversity restorations not representative of native grasslands. These dominant grasses are strongly mycotrophic, while many subordinate forb species appear to be less dependent on mycorrhizal symbiosis. Therefore, manipulating arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) may be useful in promoting establishment and growth of forb species in grass-dominated prairie restorations. To assess the potential role of mycorrhizae in affecting the productivity and community composition of restored tallgrass prairie, we conducted a 4-year field experiment on an 8-year-old grassland restoration at the Konza Prairie in northeastern Kansas, USA. At the initiation of our study, seeds of 12 forb species varying in degree of mycorrhizal dependence were added to established grass-dominated plots. Replicate plots were treated bi-weekly with a soil drench of fungicide (Topsin-M^®) over four growing seasons and compared to non-treated control plots to assess the role of AMF in affecting plant species composition, productivity, leaf tissue quality, and diversity in restored tallgrass prairie. Topsin applications successfully reduced mycorrhizal colonization of grass roots to approximately 60–80% relative to roots in control plots. Four years of mycorrhizal suppression reduced productivity of the dominant grasses and increased plant species richness and diversity. These results highlight the importance of mycorrhizae as mediators of plant productivity and community dynamics in restored tallgrass prairie and indicate that temporarily suppressing AMF decreases productivity of the dominant C4 grasses and allows for establishment of seeded forb species.     

Spider community responses to grassland restoration: balancing trade‐offs between abundance and diversity

Spiders (Araneae) play key roles in ecosystems, not only as common and abundant generalist predators, but also as major contributors to biodiversity in many areas. In addition, due to their short generation times and high mobility, spiders respond rapidly to small changes in their environment, potentially making them useful indicators for restoration monitoring. However, few studies have focused on spider responses to grassland restoration in the United States. We compared degraded, native, and restored grassland sites to examine how spider communities and habitat respond to arid grassland restoration. We also examined how responses varied with the age of the restoration project. Spider communities in native sites differed from those in restored and degraded sites in several ways: native sites had fewer spiders and a different community composition than degraded and restored sites. However, native and restored sites had more species than degraded sites. Chronosequence data showed trends for lower abundance, higher species richness, and changing community composition as restoration projects mature. Several habitat variables were closely linked to variation in spider communities including cover of invasive annual grasses, litter, and biological soil crusts. Our data suggest that spider and vegetation responses to grassland restoration efforts can be successful in the long term—with resulting communities becoming more similar to native ones—and that spiders are useful indictors of grassland restoration. Our results also suggest that restoration may involve balancing trade‐offs between ecosystem services, with potential losses in predatory control offset by increases in biodiversity with restoration effort.     

Species and functional trait re-assembly of ground beetle communities in restored grasslands

Ecosystem restoration provides unique opportunities to study community dynamics under succession and can reveal how consumer communities re-assemble and respond to successional changes. Studying community dynamics from both taxonomic and functional trait perspectives also may provide more robust assessments of restoration progress or success and allow cross-system comparisons. We studied ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) communities for three years in a restored grassland chronosequence with sites from 0 to 28 years old. We measured traditional community metrics (abundance, richness, Shannon diversity) and functional trait metrics based on species’ body length, wing morphology, activity time, phenology, and diet. Communities had high species richness and abundance in early successional stages, but these declined in later stages to low levels comparable to an adjacent grassland remnant. Species composition also shifted with time, converging with the remnant. Although functional richness, like species richness, declined as succession progressed, functional divergence quickly increased and was maintained over time, suggesting niche differentiation in established communities. Young sites were typified by small, macropterous, phytophagous species, while older sites contained larger species more likely to be flightless and carnivorous. Prescribed burns also affected traits, decreasing prevalence of larger species. This study demonstrates that functionally diverse consumer communities can self-assemble under restoration practices. In a relatively short amount of time both morphological and trophic level diversity are established. However, prescribed fire intended to control non-desirable plants may also shape beetle community functional composition, and restoration managers should consider if plant community benefits of fire outweigh potential declines in consumer function.     

The scale of analysis determines the spatial pattern of woody species diversity in the Mediterranean environment

We examine the spatial pattern of woody species diversity at different scales, in two sites of Mt. Holomontas in northern Greece, which falls within the transitional zone between temperate forests and Mediterranean-type ecosystems. We investigate how diversity is distributed in space and whether the perceived pattern changes with the scale of observation. We use two different metrics of diversity: species richness and species turnover. Our main finding is that the spatial pattern of diversity changes with the scale of observation or analysis. For a given scale, the pattern of species richness (alpha diversity) is negatively correlated with the pattern of species turnover (beta diversity). Species-rich areas have more species in common with their neighbors than species-poor areas. The between-scale disparity of the spatial pattern of diversity may be a general feature of ecological systems. For this to be validated, studies with different groups of species in different biomes and in different biogeographical areas are required; our study contributes to this direction providing evidence that this holds true for woody species in Mediterranean communities. Finally, we discuss how these findings might affect important issues in theoretical and applied ecology, such as identifying the environmental factors driving biodiversity.     

Are Ants Useful Indicators of Restoration Success in Temperate Grasslands?

Assessments of restoration are usually made through vegetation community surveys, leaving much of the ecosystem underexamined. Invertebrates, and ants in particular, are good candidates for restoration evaluation because they are sensitive to environmental change and are particularly important in ecosystem functioning. The considerable resources currently employed in restoring calcareous grassland on ex‐arable land mean that it is important to gather as much information as possible on how ecosystems change through restoration. We compared ant communities from 40 ex‐arable sites where some form of restoration work had been implemented between 2 and 60 years previously, with 40 paired reference sites of good quality calcareous grassland with no history of improvement or cultivation. A total of 11 ant species were found, but only two of these were found to be significantly different in abundance between restoration and reference sites: Myrmica sabuleti was more likely to be present in reference sites, whereas Lasius niger was more likely to be found in restoration sites. Myrmica sabuleti abundance was significantly positively correlated with age of restoration sites. The potential number of ant species found in temperate grasslands is small, limiting the information their assemblages can provide about ecosystem change. However, M. sabuleti is a good indicator species for calcareous grassland restoration success and, alongside information from the plant community, could increase the confidence with which restoration success is judged. We found the survey to be quick and simple to carry out and recommend its use.     

Plant functional diversity enhances associations of soil fungal diversity with vegetation and soil in the restoration of semiarid sandy grassland

The trait‐based approach shows that plant functional diversity strongly affects ecosystem properties. However, few empirical studies show the relationship between soil fungal diversity and plant functional diversity in natural ecosystems. We investigated soil fungal diversity along a restoration gradient of sandy grassland (mobile dune, semifixed dune, fixed dune, and grassland) in Horqin Sand Land, northern China, using the denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of 18S rRNA and gene sequencing. We also examined associations of soil fungal diversity with plant functional diversity reflected by the dominant species' traits in community (community‐weighted mean, CWM) and the dispersion of functional trait values (FD_is). We further used the structure equation model (SEM) to evaluate how plant richness, biomass, functional diversity, and soil properties affect soil fungal diversity in sandy grassland restoration. Soil fungal richness in mobile dune and semifixed dune was markedly lower than those of fixed dune and grassland (P < 0.05). Soil fungal richness was positively associated with plant richness, biomass, CWM plant height, and soil gradient aggregated from the principal component analysis, but SEM results showed that plant richness and CWM plant height determined by soil properties were the main factors exerting direct effects. Soil gradient increased fungal richness through indirect effect on vegetation rather than direct effect. The negative indirect effect of FDis on soil fungal richness was through its effect on plant biomass. Our final SEM model based on plant functional diversity explained nearly 70% variances of soil fungal richness. Strong association of soil fungal richness with the dominant species in the community supported the mass ratio hypothesis. Our results clearly highlight the role of plant functional diversity in enhancing associations of soil fungal diversity with community structure and soil properties in sandy grassland ecosystems.     

Arid grassland bee communities: associated environmental variables and responses to restoration

In recent years restoration project efforts in arid grasslands of the Pacific Northwest have increased; however, little is known about the bee communities in these areas or how restoration affects them. Native bees provide an essential ecosystem service through pollination of crops and native plants and understanding their response to restoration is a high priority. To address this issue, we conducted a three‐year study in an arid bunchgrass prairie with three objectives: (1) describe the bee community of this unique grassland type and its temporal variability; (2) investigate environmental variables influencing the community; and (3) examine effects of restoration on the community. We identified 62 bee species and found strong seasonal and inter‐annual variation in bee abundance, richness, diversity, and species composition. Unexpectedly, these temporal trends did not correspond with patterns in floral resources; however, several variables were associated with variation in bee abundance, richness, and diversity among sites. Sites with high levels of litter cover had more bees, while sites with taller vegetation or more blooming flowers had greater species richness but lower diversity. We found no detectable effect of restoration on bee abundance, richness, diversity, or composition. Species composition at native sites differed from those in actively and passively restored sites, which did not differ from each other. Restored sites also had fewer flowers and differing floral composition relative to native sites. These results suggest that if grassland restoration is to benefit bees, efforts should focus on both expanding floral resources and enhancing variables that influence nesting habitat.     

Tracking marsh restoration using macrobenthic metrics: implementing a functional approach

Attempts to understand ecological processes within restored saltmarsh ecosystems have increased dramatically in recent years; and it is now generally agreed that marsh restoration success should be gauged relative to the recovery of ecosystem function. Studies of macroinfaunal recovery in created marshes typically employ faunistic metrics to examine colonization and succession. Few studies employ macrobenthic functional metrics. Here, we present an evaluative approach employing macrobenthic functional metrics for use in marsh restoration studies in the context of a comparative study. To illustrate the approach, a four-way comparison of functional and faunistic metrics is made between intertidal Spartina and adjacent subtidal habitats and between a set of created marsh islands that have been established for 27 years and a set of nearby natural marsh islands within Davis Bay, Mississippi. The suite of functional metrics used in this study characterizes the macroinfauna in terms of biological production based and community maturity based attributes. Several production-based attributes (e.g., production potential, normalized biomass size spectrum (NBSS) intercept residuals, total abundance) differed between habitats and between created and natural sites; and community maturity based attributes (e.g., mean size, NBSS slope, faunal turnover rate) differed between habitats. Of the functional metrics, NBSS intercept residuals were most effective for discerning created and natural sites, followed by production potential and total abundance. Of the faunistic metrics, faunal diversity and dominance did not differ between created and natural sites; however evenness was higher at the created site. Diversity and evenness differed significantly between habitats; and dominance almost differed between habitats. Community structure (Bray–Curtis similarity) differed between habitats and between created and natural marshes. This study illustrates how macrobenthic functional metrics can be practical and informative for tracking marsh restoration success. Functional metrics deliver additional insights and appear to be more effective than faunistic metrics. Not only do these functional metrics fulfill the need to understand the role of benthic processes within the context of marsh restoration; they can be related appropriately to other aspects of ecosystem function.     

Partitioning species diversity across landscapes and regions: a hierarchical analysis of alpha, beta, and gamma diversity

Species diversity may be additively partitioned within and among samples (alpha and beta diversity) from hierarchically scaled studies to assess the proportion of the total diversity (gamma) found in different habitats, landscapes, or regions. We developed a statistical approach for testing null hypotheses that observed partitions of species richness or diversity indices differed from those expected by chance, and we illustrate these tests using data from a hierarchical study of forest-canopy beetles. Two null hypotheses were implemented using individual- and sample-based randomization tests to generate null distributions for alpha and beta components of diversity at multiple sampling scales. The two tests differed in their null distributions and power to detect statistically significant diversity components. Individual-based randomization was more powerful at all hierarchical levels and was sensitive to departures between observed and null partitions due to intraspecific aggregation of individuals. Sample-based randomization had less power but still may be useful for determining whether different habitats show a higher degree of differentiation in species diversity compared with random samples from the landscape. Null hypothesis tests provide a basis for inferences on partitions of species richness or diversity indices at multiple sampling levels, thereby increasing our understanding of how alpha and beta diversity change across spatial scales.     

退化森林生态系统恢复评价研究综述

森林退化是一个世界性的问题,对退化的森林进行恢复评价是合理地进行森林生态系统管理的基础。介绍了森林退化的概念,综述了退化森林生态系统恢复评价的一般程序,主要包括恢复目标的确定、参照系的选择、评价指标体系的构建及定量评价等几个方面。目前,大多数退化森林恢复评价主要包括物种多样性、植被结构和生态学过程3个方面。其中,物种多样性包括物种丰富度和多度等;植被结构包括植被盖度、乔木密度、高度、胸高断面积、生物量和凋落物结构等;生态学过程包括养分库、土壤有机质以及生物间的相互关系等。不同的研究者或管理者由于对恢复其生态系统服务功能的需求存在差异,评价退化生态系统恢复的角度也不一样。恢复评价可以从特殊种群到整个生态系统的不同层次进行。在深刻理解森林退化定义的基础上,建立现实的目标和正确地选择参照系是恢复评价的前提。     

Humid grassland fallows promote spider diversity in a traditionally managed landscape

Agricultural intensification is an important driver of biodiversity decline. Regarding grassland ecosystems, traditionally managed hay meadows, as opposed to highly productive silage grassland, are often of high conservation value. Here, we compare spider assemblages among five grassland management regimes along an intensification gradient, ranging from long-term fallows (not farmed for ≥ 30 years) via traditionally managed hay meadows to high-intensity silage grassland. Humid long-term fallows harboured highest species richness and diversity, and their assemblages differed strongly from other management regimes. There was surprisingly little variation though among different types of hay meadows and silage grassland. We also included environmental parameters and land-cover types in the surroundings of study sites, indicating that spider assemblages were most strongly shaped by fallow-related parameters and the proportion of forests. The high spider diversity on fallows may result from their undisturbed vegetation structure, while management, regardless of frequency, may have detrimental effects. Our results demonstrate the high importance of unmanaged areas even in regions with an overall low land-use intensity, such as grassland ecosystems. We thus recommend the inclusion of temporal grassland fallows (unmanaged for 3-5 years) in agri-environmental schemes to increase landscape heterogeneity and preserve spider diversity.     

Fruit‐feeding Butterfly Communities are Influenced by Restoration Age in Tropical Forests

Currently, a large‐scale restoration project aims to restore around 15 million hectares of Atlantic Forest in Brazil. This will increase forest cover and connectivity among remnant sites as well as restore environmental services. Currently, studies on recovery of fauna in restored areas of the Atlantic Forest are practically nonexistent. To address this knowledge vacuum, our study compares diversity patterns of fruit‐feeding butterflies in three forest areas with different restoration ages (11, 22, and 54 years), and uses a native forest area as reference. Results showed butterfly communities in maturing restored areas becoming more similar to the ones found in the native forest, with an increase in the proportional abundance of forest species, and a decrease of edge and grassland species. Moreover, we found a higher diversity among sites at the intermediate restoration age, with a community composed of both grassland and forest species. Butterfly species composition differed significantly among sites, showing interesting patterns of potential species replacement over time. Our results indicate that, although restored sites were located in a fragmented landscape, they provide suitable habitats for recolonization by fruit‐feeding butterfly assemblages. Hence, restored areas can be considered important habitat for forest animal species, increasing local biodiversity and, possibly, restoring some of the ecosystem services provided by them.     

Additive diversity partitioning in palaeobiology: revisiting Sepkoski’s question

Abstract: Using Whittaker’s concepts of alpha, beta, and gamma diversity, Sepkoski asked how global diversity was assembled at scales ranging from the community to the province. In the years since, ecologists have recast diversity in terms of additive partitions where total diversity can be decomposed into sample‐level alpha diversity plus the sum of a series of beta diversity terms that reflect progressively larger spatial scales. Given that marine alpha diversity represents a tiny fraction of global diversity, Phanerozoic global diversity patterns must be dominated by changes in beta diversity at one or more scales. A ballooning ecological literature demonstrates wide variation in beta diversity among ecosystems, regions, and taxa, suggesting that large changes in beta diversity on evolutionary timescales are likely. But the question is which scales are the most important. Several recent palaeontological studies help to constrain beta diversity within sedimentary basins, and the emergence of sample‐based databases puts an answer to Sepkoski’s question within reach. A new method for calculating diversity partitions for richness is introduced, which allows the calculation of each species’ contribution to alpha and beta diversity, as well as the contribution of each sampling unit to beta diversity.     

Recovery of mammal diversity in tropical forests: a functional approach to measuring restoration

Ecological restoration is increasingly applied in tropical forests to mitigate biodiversity loss and recover ecosystem functions. In restoration ecology, functional richness, rather than species richness, often determines community assembly, and measures of functional diversity provide a mechanistic link between diversity and ecological functioning of restored habitat. Vertebrate animals are important for ecosystem functioning. Here, we examine the functional diversity of small‐to‐medium sized mammals to evaluate the diversity and functional recovery of tropical rainforest. We assess how mammal species diversity and composition and functional diversity and composition, vary along a restoration chronosequence from degraded pasture to “old‐growth” tropical rainforest in the Wet Tropics of Australia. Species richness, diversity, evenness, and abundance did not vary, but total mammal biomass and mean species body mass increased with restoration age. Species composition in restoration forests converged on the composition of old‐growth rainforest and diverged from pasture with increasing restoration age. Functional metrics provided a clearer pattern of recovery than traditional species metrics, with most functional metrics significantly increasing with restoration age when taxonomic‐based metrics did not. Functional evenness and dispersion increased significantly with restoration age, suggesting that niche complementarity enhances species' abundances in restored sites. The change in community composition represented a functional shift from invasive, herbivorous, terrestrial habitat generalists and open environment specialists in pasture and young restoration sites, to predominantly endemic, folivorous, arboreal, and fossorial forest species in older restoration sites. This shift has positive implications for conservation and demonstrates the potential of tropical forest restoration to recover rainforest‐like, diverse faunal communities.