Collection and production of native seeds for ecological restoration

The global push to achieve ecosystem restoration targets has resulted in an increased demand for native seeds that current production systems are not able to fulfill. In many countries, seeds used in ecological restoration are often sourced from natural populations. Though providing seed that is reflective of the genetic diversity of a species, wild harvesting often cannot meet the demands for large‐scale restoration and may also result in depletion of native seed resources through over harvesting. To improve seed production and decrease seed costs, seed production systems have been established in several countries to generate native seeds based on agricultural or horticultural production methods or by managing natural populations. However, there is a need to expand these production systems which have a primary focus on herbaceous species to also include slower maturing shrub and tree seed. Here we propose that to reduce the threat of overharvest on the viability of natural populations, seed collection from natural populations should be replaced or supplemented by seed production systems. This overview of seed production systems demonstrates how to maximize production and minimize unintended selection bias so that native seed batches maintain genetic diversity and adaptability to underpin the success of ecological restoration programs.     

Should I pick that? A scoring tool to prioritize and valuate native wild seed for restoration

Commercial sources of native seed are often unavailable for ecological restoration projects or do not have a suitable provenance. Local collection of wild seed is an option, but it can be challenging to collect seed for a variety of species and set fair seed prices. Our aim was to quantify the relative effort to collect, clean, store, and propagate seed to better prioritize species and assess the value of their seed. For 57 species native to the Canadian subarctic and typical of upland habitats, we evaluated 13 poorly correlated attributes in the field and lab or using the literature. For collection attributes, regional occurrence, local abundance, seed collection rate, and collection window were normally or log‐normally distributed. Most species were easy to identify and posed few collection obstacles. Cleaning effort was evenly distributed across species and the majority could be cleaned to more than 95% purity. We only encountered orthodox seed and most species had seed longevity exceeding a year. Seed viability mostly exceeded 80%, pre‐treatment requirements were evenly distributed and the majority of species could be germinated under standard conditions. We propose a standard worksheet, in which we assign relative effort scores to the distribution of each attribute. We illustrate this approach for the revegetation planning of a remote mine site. We also propose a seed lot certificate to ensure high seed quality. This tool can be applied to various restoration applications to assess relative effort, to plan and prioritize species for restoration projects and to help set fair seed pricing.     

An Application of Plant Functional Types for Predicting Restoration Outcomes

We evaluated the restoration of native plant assemblages by topsoil translocation in the Hunter Valley, south‐east Australia. Species' responses were characterized by defining nine plant functional types (PFTs) based on combinations of four response mechanisms (seed bank persistence, germination cues, resprouting mechanisms, and longevity) through which species were predicted to persist or decline following translocation. The effects of community type and delay in topsoil restoration on restoration outcomes were tested in an orthogonal experiment. Changes in species' frequency were detected using Bayesian statistics with prior probabilities derived from pre‐clearing data. Few species failed to reestablish following translocation; these were offset by recruitment of other native species not detected prior to clearing. Compositional changes were more pronounced when topsoil was stockpiled (cf direct reinstatement), although there was no trend related to the period of stockpiling. The PFT response model correctly predicted the rank probability of decline in three of the nine PFTs, while a further three were correctly placed in the top ranks but in the incorrect order. Three PFTs were incorrectly ranked because the response model was incorrect. Resprouters declined more frequently than seeders; however, species with physical seed dormancy declined less frequently than those with either transient seed banks or physiological, morphological, or morpho‐physiological dormancy, irrespective of resprouting ability. Species with short juvenile periods were more likely to increase. We conclude that PFTs based on fire‐response traits represent a practical means of predicting species' responses to translocation and a basis for prioritizing species for supplementary planting.     

Restoring grassy ecosystems – Feasible or fiction? An inquisitive Australian's experience in the USA

Many small‐scale projects in Australia suggest that ground‐layer elements of ecosystems can be restored, but scaling up of grassland and grassy understorey restoration has not occurred to date. Paul Gibson‐Roy recently travelled through the USA, where well‐developed markets for restoration have created a large, financially viable native‐herbaceous seed production and restoration sector. Here, he shares his observations, which show how much about the USA situation can be a model and inspiration for Australian grassy ecosystem restoration.     

How policies constrain native seed supply for restoration in Brazil

Large‐scale ecological restoration programs across the world involve a voluminous demand for native seeds of diverse native plant species. In this article, we explore how institutional systems have operated and impacted native seed supply in Brazil. Native seed supply for restoration is essentially a community‐based activity which faces broad barriers to operating within regulations because of requirements for excessive and costly technical documentation, scarcity of seed laboratories, and lack of instructions for native seed quality testing. Although decentralized seed networks have stimulated arrangements for local organizations to promote seed supply, policies constrain the development of local capacities and the ongoing sustainability of these organizations. These conditions have resulted in a vast network of informal collectors and producers who are largely “invisible” and unknown to the regulatory authorities. Policies have decentralized responsibilities from the state without devolving decision‐making power to the multiple stakeholders engaged in policy elaboration. The policies maintain the centralized regulation of native seed supply. After examining Brazilian seed networks' experiences and conducting discussions with stakeholders and experts, we suggest adapting the current regulations to more local level contexts, encompassing the following strategies: (1) ensuring native seed origin and identity; (2) relaxation of the laboratory accreditation process for native seed quality assurance; (3) fostering seed markets for restoration; (4) research to provide technological innovation; (5) supporting local, diverse, and small seed‐based businesses.     

Overcoming challenges on using native seeds for restoration of megadiverse resource‐poor environments: a reply to Madsen et al.

Madsen et al. (2016) reviewed several major limiting factors to establishment of seedlings in nonforest ecosystems (NFE), and proposed seed enhancement technologies to overcome these restoration barriers. However, biodiverse nutrient‐poor NFE present additional hurdles that preclude landscape‐scale seed‐based restoration and were not mentioned in their review. Here, we discuss issues related to native seed availability and provenance, and shortfalls in knowledge on seed quality testing and dormancy release that severely hamper restoration of degraded nutrient‐impoverished NFE. We present alternatives for overcoming these challenges and highlight the need for investments to find more practical and cost‐effective options for broad‐scale restoration.     

Rapid evolution in native plants cultivated for ecological restoration: not a general pattern

• The growing number of restoration projects worldwide increases the demand for seed material of native species. To meet this demand, seeds are often produced through large‐scale cultivation on specialised farms, using wild‐collected seeds as the original sources. However, during cultivation, plants experience novel environmental conditions compared to those in natural populations, and there is a danger that the plants in cultivation are subject to unintended selection and lose their adaptation to natural habitats. Although the propagation methods are usually designed to maintain as much natural genetic diversity as possible, the effectiveness of these measures have never been tested.
• We obtained seed of five common grassland species from one of the largest native seed producers in Germany. For each species, the seeds were from multiple generations of seed production. We used AFLP markers and a common garden experiment to test for genetic and phenotypic changes during cultivation of these plants.
• The molecular markers detected significant evolutionary changes in three out of the five species and we found significant phenotypic changes in two species. The only species that showed substantial genetic and phenotypic changes was the short‐lived and predominantly selfing Medicago lupulina, while in the other, mostly perennial and outcrossing species, the observed changes were mostly minor.
• Agricultural propagation of native seed material for restoration can cause evolutionary changes, at least in some species. We recommend caution, particularly in selfing and short‐lived species, where evolution may be more rapid and effects may thus be more severe.

     

Slash Pile Burning Effects on Soil Biotic and Chemical Properties and Plant Establishment: Recommendations for Amelioration

Ponderosa pine forest restoration consists of thinning trees and reintroducing prescribed fire to reduce unnaturally high tree densities and fuel loads to restore ecosystem structure and function. A current issue in ponderosa pine restoration is what to do with the large quantity of slash that is created from thinning dense forest stands. Slash piling burning is currently the preferred method of slash removal because it allows land managers to burn large quantities of slash in a more controlled environment in comparison with broadcast burning slash. However burning slash piles is known to have adverse effects such as soil sterilization and exotic species establishment. This study investigated the effects of slash pile burning on soil biotic and chemical variables and early herbaceous succession on burned slash pile areas. Slash piles were created following tree thinning in two adjacent approximately 20‐ha ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) restoration treatments in the Coconino National Forest near Flagstaff, Arizona. We selected 30 burned slash pile areas and sampled across a gradient of the burned piles for arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) propagule densities, the soil seed bank, and soil chemical properties. In addition, we established five 1‐m² plots in each burned pile to quantify the effect of living soil (AM inoculum) and seeding amendments on early herbaceous succession in burned slash pile areas. The five treatments consisted of a control (no treatment), living soil (AM inoculum) amendment, sterilized soil (no AM inoculum) amendment, seed amendment, and a seed/soil (AM inoculum) amendment. Slash pile burning nearly eliminated populations of viable seeds and AM propagules and altered soil chemical properties. Amending scars with native seeds increased the cover of native forbs and grasses. Furthermore adding both seed and living soil more than doubled total native plant cover and decreased ruderal and exotic plant cover. These results indicate that seed/soil amendments that increase native forbs and grasses may enhance the rate of succession in burned slash pile areas by allowing these species to outcompete exotic and ruderal species also establishing at the site through natural regeneration.     

International principles and standards for native seeds in ecological restoration

The growing demand for native seeds in ecological restoration and rehabilitation, whether for mining, forest, or ecosystem restoration, has resulted in a major global industry in the sourcing, supply, and sale of native seeds. However, there are no international guidance documents for ensuring that native seeds have the same standards of quality assurance that are regular practice in the crop and horticultural industries. Using the International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration as a foundation document, we provide for the first time a synthesis of general practices in the native seed supply chain to derive the Principles and Standards for Native Seeds in Ecological Restoration (“Standards”). These practices and the underpinning science provide the basis for developing quality measures and guidance statements that are adaptable at the local, biome, or national scale. Importantly, these Standards define what is considered native seed in ecological restoration and highlight the differences between native seeds versus seeds of improved genetics. Seed testing approaches are provided within a logical framework that outline the many different dormancy states in native seed that can confound restoration outcomes. A “pro‐forma” template for a production label is included as a practical tool that can be customized for local needs and to standardize reporting to end‐users on the level of seed quality and germinability to be expected in a native seed batch. These Standards are not intended to be mandatory; however, the guidance statements provide the foundation upon which regulatory approaches can be developed by constituencies and jurisdictions.     

The role of area enclosures and fallow age in the restoration of plant diversity in northern Ethiopia

This study investigated the roles played by area enclosures and fallow age in the restoration of plant species richness and soil seed bank species richness in degraded mountain rangelands in northern Ethiopia. Management types (enclosures versus grazed) influenced woody and herbaceous species richness, while fallow age showed no effect on the woody species. Management, age and the doubling of fallow age influenced the herbaceous species richness and species diversity. Management showed no effect on soil seed bank species richness. Fallow age and the doubling of fallow time also showed no influence on the soil seed bank of grass species, but they were influential on the forbs species soil seed bank. The trends for restoration of plant species richness and diversity and grass seed bank in response to fallow age were positive‐linear, but they declined when the fallow ages were doubled. The exception was the forbs seed bank showed linear trends when age of restoration was doubled. The data suggest that the restoration of degraded rangelands in the high mountain zones of northern Ethiopia was still in the weedy succession stages. Long‐term monitoring will be required to gain an informed understanding of the roles played by area enclosures and fallow age in the restoration of plant biodiversity.     

Message in a bottle: Inadvertent loss of seeds of native grassland species as a result of rudimentary long‐term storage

Many practitioners are likely to have collected seeds with the intention of using that seed for conservation and/or restoration plantings, but have not got around to using the seed, sometimes for many years. Currently, it is not clear what species have short‐lived or long‐lived seed when stored under rudimentary conditions such as in paper bags or in a refrigerator. We report the germinability of 12 temperate native grassland species, comprising 16 populations, whose seeds were collected with the purpose of raising seedlings to plant into the wild, but whose seeds were subsequently stored at ~2–4°C for 25+ years. We conclude that most of the grassland species that we assessed do not have viable seed after 25 years when stored in such conditions; only two species germinated despite evidence that seed germinates well for most species when first collected. Inadvertent loss of seeds of as a result of long‐term storage is most likely in readily germinable species (e.g. members of the Asteraceae). The ways in which seeds are stored by practitioners deserves consideration given the risk of seed mortality with long‐term storage under rudimentary conditions.     

Topsoil Seed Bank of an Oak–Hickory Forest in Eastern Kentucky as a Restoration Tool on Surface Mines

Typical reclamation practices in the central Appalachian coal region often use compacted spoils as a topsoil replacement, and these soils are revegetated with aggressive grasses and legumes. This restoration approach results in an herbaceous‐dominated landscape with limited natural succession by native flora. An alternative restoration method is to save topsoil prior to mining, stockpile it during mining, and then replace it on uncompacted spoils to “inoculate” the site with native plant species. In an effort to test this approach, vegetation assessments were performed at a relatively undisturbed forested site in Clay County, Kentucky, U.S.A. Eight 15 × 15–m plots were established, and soils from individual plots were used in seed bank studies both in the greenhouse and on loose‐dumped mine spoils. Bulk soil samples were removed from the plots and subjected to cold stratification for 13 weeks, after which seeds were allowed to germinate under greenhouse conditions for 1 year. Additional topsoil (approximately 1.5 m³ from the upper 0–20 cm) was removed from the plots and replaced on fresh spoil in eight 2 × 5–m plots. Controls consisted of uncompacted spoil material substrate only. A total of 105 species emerged in the greenhouse from the seed bank. On the relocated topsoil, 69 species were recorded of which 39 were also observed in pre‐mine vegetation surveys. Ten of the 17 most important pre‐mine forested site species emerged from the relocated topsoil treatments on the mine site. Our results indicate that application of topsoil could enhance plant diversity and native species reestablishment on surface‐mined lands.     

The merits of artificial selection for the development of restoration‐ready plant materials of native perennial grasses

Although seed harvested from remnant, wildland perennial‐grass populations can be used for restoration in humid and subhumid temperate regions, seed harvested in semiarid and arid environments is often of low quality and highly variable in quantity. In addition, ongoing harvest of indigenous populations can be unsustainable, especially for those that are small. In such environments, dependable and repeatable broad‐scale restoration of degraded grasslands requires sufficient and consistent supplies of reliable, cost‐effective seed sources that can only result from intensively managed cultivated stands. But does the harvest of intensively managed seed‐production fields inadvertently compromise genetic diversity, thereby adversely affecting the restoration outcome? That is, are seed‐production systems a part of the solution for restoration, or do they create new unintended management issues? This article discusses the potential impacts of cultivated seed‐production systems and recurrent artificial selection for specific traits on genetic integrity and performance of native‐species perennial‐grass populations. Although genetic shift resulting from cultivated perennial‐grass seed production may be inevitable, genetic shifts that change phenological expression may be limited in genotypes that exhibit high seed retention. Artificial selection can improve plant material performance on the often‐harsh conditions of restoration sites, but sufficiently high‐effective population sizes (N_e) must be maintained to conserve genetic diversity, thereby precluding the inbreeding depression that can compromise plant performance. Potentially useful traits of native perennial‐grass species that respond to artificial selection include seed production, seed retention, seedling establishment, competitive ability against weeds, and herbicide tolerance. Potential trade‐offs between traits should also be considered to avoid undesirable inadvertent responses to selection.     

Do large‐seeded herbs have a small range size? The seed mass–distribution range trade‐off hypothesis

We aimed to introduce and test the “seed mass–distribution range trade‐off” hypothesis, that is, that range size is negatively related to seed mass due to the generally better dispersal ability of smaller seeds. Studying the effects of environmental factors on the seed mass and range size of species, we also aimed to identify habitats where species may be at risk and need extra conservation effort to avoid local extinctions. We collected data for seed mass, global range size, and indicators for environmental factors of the habitat for 1,600 species of the Pannonian Ecoregion (Central Europe) from the literature. We tested the relationship between species’ seed mass, range size, and indicator values for soil moisture, light intensity, and nutrient supply. We found that seed mass is negatively correlated with range size; thus, a seed mass–distribution range trade‐off was validated based on the studied large species pool. We found increasing seed mass with decreasing light intensity and increasing nutrient availability, but decreasing seed mass with increasing soil moisture. Range size increased with increasing soil moisture and nutrient supply, but decreased with increasing light intensity. Our results supported the hypothesis that there is a trade‐off between seed mass and distribution range. We found that species of habitats characterized by low soil moisture and nutrient values but high light intensity values have small range size. This emphasizes that species of dry, infertile habitats, such as dry grasslands, could be more vulnerable to habitat fragmentation or degradation than species of wet and fertile habitats. The remarkably high number of species and the use of global distribution range in our study support our understanding of global biogeographic processes and patterns that are essential in defining conservation priorities.     

Diminishing Returns from Higher Density Restoration Seedings Suggest Trade‐offs in Pollinator Seed Mixes

Native forbs have become a more central component of restoration programs, especially because of their role in supporting crop pollinators. This study evaluates the success of different native forb mixes and seeding rates using shared goals of restoration practitioners and agroecologists, namely percent native species cover, floral resources, native diversity, and cost‐effectiveness. At 6 sites with hedgerows adjacent to agricultural lands in California's Central Valley, we planted 3 native forb seed mixes at 3 seeding rates and monitored germination, percent cover, and floral resources for 2 to 3 years. We also evaluated the cost of the mixes based on seeding rates and original seed prices. More than mix type, relative seeding rate strongly affected germination, cover, and floral resource success. The relative benefits of seeding with more species diminished at higher seeding rates, especially when cost was considered. Cover increased significantly over the years but diversity declined sharply after the first year. Increased cover of target species was mainly due to the effect of 1 dominant species Grindelia camporum, common gumplant. We summarize data from a similar forb restoration study showing that the species that dominated in our mix‐and‐rate experimental sites also attracted the greatest diversity and abundance of pollinators. These findings highlight trade‐offs and balance‐points within restoration and pollination services goals. We offer suggestions on how to weigh those trade‐offs, given particular priorities and how native forb plantings can support combined goals of pollination services and restoration.     

Fire‐related cues and germination from the soil seed bank of senescent remnants of mallee vegetation on Eastern Kangaroo Island

Plant communities dominated by narrow‐leaved mallee (Eucalyptus cneorifolia) are almost entirely confined to north‐eastern Kangaroo Island, South Australia, an area which has been extensively cleared for agriculture. Consequently, surviving examples consist mostly of small remnants which are thought to be senescent due to the exclusion of fire. This senescence is associated with the loss of many native understory species. Prescribed burns have been suggested as a management tool to stimulate the restoration of native plants from the soil seed bank; however, no seed bank studies have previously been conducted on Kangaroo Island and the seed bank literature usually focuses on particular species rather than on plant communities. We conducted an experiment to investigate the effects of the fire‐related cues heat and smoke on the germination of plants from the seed bank in soil sampled from 10 long‐ungrazed narrow‐leaved mallee sites on Kangaroo Island. Eighty trays of soil were monitored in a controlled glasshouse for five months after being subjected to heat and/or smoke treatments. The overall number of native, but not exotic, plant species germinating from the soil seed bank was significantly increased by all three fire‐related treatments (heat, smoke and heat plus smoke) compared with the control (no fire‐related treatment). Different plant life forms exhibited varying responses to heat and smoke treatments. The results of this study illustrate that the application of fire‐related treatments to soil seed banks in controlled glasshouse conditions can stimulate the recruitment of native species, including several species of conservation concern. These findings also indicate the potential of using these treatments for the ex situ germination of fire dependent species for revegetation purposes and indicate aspects of prescribed burns that may be important for restoring different components of native vegetation.     

Can Managers Bank on Seed Banks When Restoring Pinus taeda L. Plantations in Southwest Georgia?

In the southeastern United States, private forestland managers are under increased pressure to provide wildlife habitat and biodiversity in addition to commercial products such as timber. This study used a stand classification scheme based on vegetation biodiversity from Hedman et al. to compare seed bank composition of benchmark (BM) and nonbenchmark (NBM) Loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda ) stands. In the Hedman et al. study, BM stands contained species associated with Longleaf pine ( P. palustris )/Wiregrass ( Aristida stricta ) communities, whereas NBM stands contained species associated with disturbed sites. The current vegetation of the BM and NBM stands had an average cover of 7.9%/m² and an average richness of 11 species/m². The intent for this study was to assist in understanding the potential role of the seed bank during stand development and restoration. We collected seed bank samples from six pine plantations in the winter of 2006. Seed bank samples yielded 2,885 germinants representing 56 unique species but only 4 were found in both current herbaceous vegetation plots and seed bank. The seed bank was dominated by native dicots. In BM stands, 76% of species were native, whereas in NBM stands, 69% were native. Seed bank samples from NBM stands had greater species richness ( p = 0.03) and total germinants ( p = 0.03) than BM stands. Although the seed bank in all stands was dominated by native species, our data suggest that the seed bank under P. taeda stands should not be viewed as the sole source of native species for most restoration goals.     

Seed planning,sourcing, and procurement

Ensuring the availability of adequate seed supplies of species and sources appropriate for restoration projects and programs necessitates extensive science‐based planning. The selection of target species requires a review of disturbance conditions and reference areas, development of a reference model, and consideration of specific objectives, timeframes, available resources, and budgets as well as the performance of prospective species in past restoration efforts. Identification of seed sources adapted to site conditions is critical to provide for short‐term establishment and long‐term sustainability. Seed zones and plant movement guidelines provide tools for sourcing plant materials with reduced risk of maladaptation. A seed zone framework also facilitates seed use planning and contributes to stability and predictability of the commercial market, thereby reducing costs and improving the availability of adapted seed supplies. Calculating the amount of seed required for each species is based on seed quality (viability, purity), seed weight, expected seedling establishment, and desired composition of the seeding. If adequate collections from wildland stands are not feasible, then seed increase in seed fields or use of nursery stock may be warranted. Adherence to seed collection and seed production protocols for conserving genetic diversity is critical to protect genetic resources and buffer new seedings and plantings against environmental stressors. Maintenance of genetic diversity becomes even more critical considering current or expected climate change impacts. Collaboration and partnerships can benefit seed selection and procurement programs through sharing of information, coordination in project planning, and increasing the availability of native seed.     

Seed‐enhancement combinations improve germination and handling in two dominant native grass species

The use of native grasses for both restoration and commercial purposes is becoming increasingly important globally. Many native grasses have limited success in seed‐based restoration (e.g. post‐mine rehabilitation) and commercial industries (e.g. agriculture) due to poor seed germination and handling. Seed‐enhancement technologies can assist in overcoming these barriers. This study aimed to use combinations of seed enhancements to overcome the germination and handling challenges in two dominant Australian native grass species with demand in restoration and commercial industries (Triodia wiseana C.A Gardner and Rytidosperma caespitosum [Gaudich.] Connor & Edgar). Selected enhancements included hydropriming (including inoculation with karrikinolide [KAR₁]), flash flaming, and seed coating. Combinations of these seed enhancements allowed improvements in both germination (by up to 55% and 18% for T. wiseana and R. caespitosum, respectively) and floret geometry (flowability, as measured through a mechanized seeder, improved by up to 6‐fold and 17‐fold for T. wiseana and R. caespitosum, respectively), with the order of enhancement application being important. The responses of each species to enhancements corresponded with key biological processes and ecological cues required for recruitment events in nature, such as fire and rainfall events. Triodia wiseana germination was driven by fire‐related cues (i.e. KAR₁, flaming), while R. caespitosum germination was highest in response to moisture‐related cues (i.e. hydro‐priming). Responses to seed enhancements (and combinations of) may have implications for the management and scaled use of the targeted species. This can assist in improving the restoration and commercial success of the study species, and potentially other grasses with germination and handling challenges, into the future.     

Seed transfer zones based on environmental variables better reflect variability in vegetation than administrative units: evidence from Hungary

To preserve the natural genetic pattern of species and to avoid the introduction of nonadapted ecotypes during restoration, seed transfer should be spatially restricted. Instead of applying administrative borders in the absence of species‐specific empirical data, biogeographical knowledge can be used as a proxy. Hungary was used as a suitable test region for this approach. The aims of the study were (1) to produce an evidence‐based seed transfer zone (STZ) map applying the Multiple Potential Natural Vegetation model; (2) to assess the uncertainty of the resulting STZ map; and (3) to compare the present seed transfer regulation based on administrative regions with the evidence‐based STZ map. The analysis was based on a floristic map, a vegetation map, and a landscape map of Hungary. Intersected polygons of the three maps were filled with Multiple Potential Natural Vegetation data and clustered to produce seven contiguous units that can serve as STZs. The uncertainty analyses provided a numerical comparison between the two approaches and demonstrated the inadequacy of defining administrative regions as STZs. The practical result of the study is the production of an evidence‐based STZ map that could replace the administrative map currently used for regulation in Hungary. Moreover, this map helps to develop native seed propagation and to enhance ecological restoration. We conclude that field‐based potential vegetation models, similar to the Multiple Potential Natural Vegetation, are suitable for STZ development in countries lacking an evidence‐based system for seed transfer.