Human CD8+ T-cells Recognizing Peptides from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) Presented by HLA-E Have an Unorthodox Th2-like,Multifunctional, Mtb Inhibitory Phenotype and Represent a Novel Human T-cell Subset

Mycobacterial antigens are not exclusively presented to T-cells by classical HLA-class Ia and HLA-class II molecules, but also through alternative antigen presentation molecules such as CD1a/b/c, MR1 and HLA-E. We recently described mycobacterial peptides that are presented in HLA-E and recognized by CD8⁺ T-cells. Using T-cell cloning, phenotyping, microbiological, functional and RNA-expression analyses, we report here that these T-cells can exert cytolytic or suppressive functions, inhibit mycobacterial growth, yet express GATA3, produce Th2 cytokines (IL-4,-5,-10,-13) and activate B-cells via IL-4. In TB patients, Mtb specific cells were detectable by peptide-HLA-E tetramers, and IL-4 and IL-13 were produced following peptide stimulation. These results identify a novel human T-cell subset with an unorthodox, multifunctional Th2 like phenotype and cytolytic or regulatory capacities, which is involved in the human immune response to mycobacteria and demonstrable in active TB patients’ blood. The results challenge the current dogma that only Th1 cells are able to inhibit Mtb growth and clearly show that Th2 like cells can strongly inhibit outgrowth of Mtb from human macrophages. These insights significantly expand our understanding of the immune response in infectious disease.     

Carbohydrate Recognition by RpfB from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Unveiled by Crystallographic and Molecular Dynamics Analyses

Resuscitation of Mtb is crucial to the etiology of Tuberculosis, because latent tuberculosis is estimated to affect one-third of the world population. The resuscitation-promoting factor RpfB is mainly responsible for Mtb resuscitation from dormancy. Given the impact of latent Tuberculosis, RpfB represents an interesting target for tuberculosis drug discovery. However, no molecular models of substrate binding and catalysis are hitherto available for this enzyme. Here, we identified key interactions involved in substrate binding to RpfB by combining x-ray diffraction studies and computational approaches. The crystal structure of RpfB catalytic domain in complex with N,N′,N″-triacetyl-chitotriose, as described here, provides the first, to our knowledge, atomic representation of ligand recognition by RpfB and demonstrates that the strongest interactions are established by the N-acetylglucosamine moiety in the central region of the enzyme binding cleft. Molecular dynamics analyses provided information on the dynamic behavior of protein-substrate interactions and on the role played by the solvent in RpfB function. These data combined with sequence conservation analysis suggest that Glu-292 is the sole residue crucial for catalysis, implying that RpfB acts via the formation of an oxocarbenium ion rather than a covalent intermediate. Present data represent a solid base for the design of effective drug inhibitors of RpfB. Moreover, homology models were generated for the catalytic domains of all members of the Mtb Rpf family (RpfA-E). The analysis of these models unveiled analogies and differences among the different members of the Rpf protein family.Abbreviations used: Mtb, Mycobacterium tuberculosis; RpfB, Resuscitation promoting factor B; PDB, Protein Data Bank; RpfBc, catalytic domain of RpfB; NAG3, N,N'',N"-triacetyl-chitotriose; NAG6, hexa-N- acetylchitohexaose; MD, molecular dynamics; RMSF, root mean-square fluctuation     

Molecular Dynamics Simulation of CaF2 Structure in Crystalline,Superionic and Molten Phases

Abstract

We describe here a number of molecular dynamics simulations on calcium fluoride over a range of temperatures spanning the transitions to the superionic and molten state. The simulation temperatures are 1400, 1590, 1800, 2000, 2200 K. By using the bond spherical harmonics method with equal neighbor number, we have studied the structure and bond orientation of cation sublattice and anion sublattice in superionic conductor CaF₂. The bond order parameters Q₁ have been calculated both for the computer generated instataneous configurations from the simulation system and for the standard configurations from the normal distribution model of bond orientation. The comparison of Q₁ between the molecular dynamics simulation and the normal distribution model shows that not only the cation sublattice but also the anion sublattice can be described by the normal distribution model. The cations keep their original fcc frame, but in the anion case there is a great deal of random distortions from the original anion sublattice.     

The Role of Electrostatic Interaction in Triggering the Unraveling of Stable Helix 1 in Normal Prion Protein. A Molecular Dynamics Simulation Investigation

Abstract

The conversion of normal prion protein (PrP^C) into scrapie isoform (PrP^Sc) is a key event in the pathogenesis of prion diseases. However, the conversion mechanism has given rise to much controversy. For instance, there is much debate on the behavior of helix 1 (H1) in the conversion. A series of experiments demonstrated that H1 in isolated state was very stable under a variety of conditions. But, other experiments indicated that helices 2 and 3 rather than H1 were retained in PrP^Sc. In this paper, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is employed to investigate the dynamic behavior of H1. It is revealed that although the helix 1 of Human PrP^C (HuPrP^C) is very stable in the isolated state, it becomes unstable when incorporated into native HuPrP^C, which likely results from the long-range electrostatic interaction between Asp147 and Arg208 located in the helices 1 and 3, respectively. This explanation is supported by experimental evaluation and MD simulation on D147N mutant of HuPrP^C that the mutant becomes a little more stable than the wild type HuPrP^C. This finding not only help to reconcile the existing debate on the role of helix 1 in the PrP^C→PrP^Sc transition, but also reveals a possible mechanism for triggering the PrP^C→PrP^Sc conversion.     

Structure and Mechanical Characterization of DNA i-Motif Nanowires by Molecular Dynamics Simulation

We studied the structure and mechanical properties of DNA i-motif nanowires by means of molecular dynamics computer simulations. We built up to 230 nm-long nanowires, based on a repeated TC₅ sequence from crystallographic data, fully relaxed and equilibrated in water. The unusual C⋅C⁺ stacked structure, formed by four ssDNA strands arranged in an intercalated tetramer, is here fully characterized both statically and dynamically. By applying stretching, compression, and bending deformations with the steered molecular dynamics and umbrella sampling methods, we extract the apparent Young’s and bending moduli of the nanowire, as well as estimates for the tensile strength and persistence length. According to our results, the i-motif nanowire shares similarities with structural proteins, as far as its tensile stiffness, but is closer to nucleic acids and flexible proteins, as far as its bending rigidity is concerned. Furthermore, thanks to its very thin cross section, the apparent tensile toughness is close to that of a metal. Besides their yet to be clarified biological significance, i-motif nanowires may qualify as interesting candidates for nanotechnology templates, due to such outstanding mechanical properties.     

Structure and Stability of the Insulin Dimer Investigated by Molecular Dynamics Simulation

Abstract

Molecular dynamics simulation indicates that the dynamical behaviour of the insulin dimer is asymmetric. Atomic level knowledge of the interaction modes and protein conformation in the solvation state identifies dynamical structures, held by hydrogen bonds that stabilize, mainly in one monomer, the interaction between the chains. Dynamic cross-correlation analysis shows that the two insulin monomers behave asymmetrically and are almost independent. Solvation energy, calculated to evaluate the contribute of each interface residue to the dimer association pattern, well compares with the experimental association state found in protein mutants indicating that this parameter is an important factor to explain the association properties of mutated insulin dimers.     

Structure and Mechanical Characterization of DNA i-Motif Nanowires by Molecular Dynamics Simulation

We studied the structure and mechanical properties of DNA i-motif nanowires by means of molecular dynamics computer simulations. We built up to 230 nm-long nanowires, based on a repeated TC₅ sequence from crystallographic data, fully relaxed and equilibrated in water. The unusual C⋅C⁺ stacked structure, formed by four ssDNA strands arranged in an intercalated tetramer, is here fully characterized both statically and dynamically. By applying stretching, compression, and bending deformations with the steered molecular dynamics and umbrella sampling methods, we extract the apparent Young’s and bending moduli of the nanowire, as well as estimates for the tensile strength and persistence length. According to our results, the i-motif nanowire shares similarities with structural proteins, as far as its tensile stiffness, but is closer to nucleic acids and flexible proteins, as far as its bending rigidity is concerned. Furthermore, thanks to its very thin cross section, the apparent tensile toughness is close to that of a metal. Besides their yet to be clarified biological significance, i-motif nanowires may qualify as interesting candidates for nanotechnology templates, due to such outstanding mechanical properties.     

Molecular Dynamics Simulation Studies of dTTP Binding and Catalysis Mediated by YhdE Dimerization

YhdE is a Maf-like (multicopy associated filamentation) protein that primarily acts as dTTPase to hydrolyze dTTP into dTMP and two phosphate molecules in cell metabolism pathway. Two crystal structures of YhdE have been previously determined, representing the open and closed active site conformations, respectively. Based on the structures, we have carried out molecular dynamics simulations and free energy calculations to investigate dTTP binding to and hydrolysis by YhdE. Our results suggest that YhdE closed state is structurally more compact than its open state at room temperature. YhdE open state is a favorable conformation for dTTP binding and closed state is a structurally favorable conformation for catalytic reaction. This observation is supported by the structure of YhdE homolog in complex with a nucleotide analog. Free energy calculations reveal that YhdE dimerization occurs preferentially in dTTP binding and is favorable for successive cooperative reaction. The key residues R11, R12 and K80, are found to contribute to the substrate stabilization. Further, YhdE dimerization and binding of dTTP induce the cooperative effect through a direct allosteric communication network in YhdE from the dTTP binding sites in the catalytic center to the intermolecular β-strand in YhdE dimer.     

Molecular structure and peptidoglycan recognition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis ArfA (Rv0899)

Mycobacterium tuberculosis ArfA (Rv0899) is a membrane protein encoded by an operon that is required for supporting bacterial growth in acidic environments. Its C-terminal domain (C domain) shares significant sequence homology with the OmpA-like family of peptidoglycan-binding domains, suggesting that its physiological function in acid stress protection may be related to its interaction with the mycobacterial cell wall. Previously, we showed that ArfA forms three independently structured modules, and we reported the structure of its central domain (B domain). Here, we describe the high-resolution structure and dynamics of the C domain, we identify ArfA as a peptidoglycan-binding protein and we elucidate the molecular basis for its specific recognition of diaminopimelate-type peptidoglycan. The C domain of ArfA adopts the characteristic fold of the OmpA-like family. It exhibits pH-dependent conformational dynamics (with significant heterogeneity at neutral pH and a more ordered structure at acidic pH), which could be related to its acid stress response. The C domain associates tightly with polymeric peptidoglycan isolated from M. tuberculosis and also associates with a soluble peptide intermediate of peptidoglycan biosynthesis. This enabled us to characterize the peptidoglycan binding site where five highly conserved ArfA residues, including two key arginines, establish the specificity for diaminopimelate- but not Lys-type peptidoglycan. ArfA is the first peptidoglycan-binding protein to be identified in M. tuberculosis. Its functions in acid stress protection and peptidoglycan binding suggest a link between the acid stress response and the physicochemical properties of the mycobacterial cell wall.     

Molecular Modeling of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis dUTpase: Docking and Catalytic Mechanism Studies

Abstract

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a leading cause of infectious disease in the world today. This outlook is aggravated by a growing number of M. tuberculosis infections in individuals who are immunocompromised as a result of HIV infections. Thus, new and more potent anti-TB agents are necessary. Therefore, dUTpase was selected as a target enzyme to combat M. tuberculosis. In this work, molecular modeling methods involving docking and QM/MM calculations were carried out to investigate the binding orientation and predict binding affinities of some potential dUTpase inhibitors. Our results suggest that the best potential inhibitor investigated, among the compounds studied in this work, is the compound dUPNPP. Regarding the reaction mechanism, we concluded that the decisive stage for the reaction is the stage 1. Furthermore, it was also observed that the compounds with a ?1 electrostatic charge presented lower activation energy in relation to the compounds with a ?2 charge.     

Predicting the Structure of the Flavodoxin from Eschericia coli by Homology Modeling,Distance Geometry and Molecular Dynamics

Abstract

As part of our on-going development of a method, based upon distance geometry calculations, for predicting the structures of proteins from the known structures of their homologues, we have predicted the structure of the 176 residue Flavodoxin from Escherichia coli. This prediction was based upon the crystal structures of the homologous Flavodoxins from Anacystis nidulans, Chondrus crispus, Desulfovibrio vulgaris and Clostridium beijerinckii, whose sequence identities with Escherichia coli were 44%, 33%, 23% and 16%, respectively. A total of 13,043 distance constraints among the alpha-carbons of the Escherichia coli structure were derived from the sequence alignments with the known structures, together with 8,893 distance constraints among backbone and sidechain atoms of adjacent residues, 978 between the alpha-carbons and selected atoms of the flavin mononucleotide cofactor, 116 constraints to enforce conserved hydrogen bonds, and 452 constraints on the torsion angles in conserved residues. An ensemble of ten random Escherichia coli structures was computed from these constraints, with an average root mean square coordinate deviation (RMSD) among the alpha carbons of 0.85 Ångstroms (excluding the first 1 and last 6 residues, which have no corresponding residues in any of the homologues and hence were unconstrained); the corresponding average heavy-atom RMSD was 1.60 Å.

Since the distance geometry calculations were performed without hydrogen atoms, protons were added to the resulting structures and these structures embedded in a 50 × 50 × 40 Å solvent box with periodic boundary conditions. They were then subjected to a 20 picosecond dynamical simulated annealing procedure, starting at 300 K and gradually reduced to 10K, in which all the distance and torsion angle constraints were maintained by means of harmonic restraint functions. This was followed up by 1000 iterations of unrestrained conjugate gradients minimization. The goal of this energy refinement procedure was not to drastically modify the structures in an attempt at a priori prediction, but merely to improve upon the predictions obtained from the geometric constraints, particularly with regard to their local backbone and sidechain conformations and their hydrogen bonds. The resulting structures differed from the respective starting structures by an average of 1.52 Å in their heavy atom RMSD's, while the average RMSD among the heavy atoms of residues 2-170 increased slightly to 1.66 Å. We hope these structures will be good enough to enable the phase problem to be solved for the crystallographic data that is now being collected on this protein.     

Molecular Dynamics Simulation Study of the Interaction of Piscidin 1 with DPPC Bilayers: Structure-Activity Relationship

Abstract

To study structure-activity relationship of antimicrobial peptides and to design novel antimicrobial peptides with selectivity for bacterial cells, we have performed molecular dynamics simulations of the interaction of Piscidin (Pis1) and its two analogues (Pis1-AA and Pis1-PG) with dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) bilayer through 45 ns. Our results inform us of the detailed location and orientation of the peptide with respect to the bilayer as well as provide about hydrogen-bond-formation patterns and electrostatics interactions. Simulations show that Pis1 and Pis-AA form the most hydrogen bonds and Pis-PG forms the fewest hydrogen bonds with lipid. Thus, Pis1 and Pis-AA should have stronger interactions with the lipid head group when compared to Pis-PG. Experimental studies have shown that Pis1 and Pis1-AA have a high antimicrobial and hemolytic activities, and Pis1-PG has low hemolytic activity while keeps potent antimicrobial activity. Our results complement the previous experimental studies. According to our MD results and previous experimental studies, Pis1 and Pis1-AA are more effective at the zwitterionic bilayer comparing Pis1-PG. These properties of Pis1-PG could be accordance with its low hemolytic activities.     

Molecular Interaction of Novel Compound 2-Methylheptyl Isonicotinate Produced by Streptomyces sp. 201 with Dihydrodipicolinate Synthase (DHDPS) Enzyme of Mycobacterium tuberculosis for its Antibacterial Activity

Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem in multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis which is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). Hence there is an urgent need for designing or developing a novel or potent anti-tubercular agent. The Lysine/DAP biosynthetic pathway is a promising target because of its role in cell wall and amino acid biosynthesis. In our study we performed a molecular docking analysis of a novel antibacterial isolated from Streptomyces sp. 201 at three different binding site of dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS) enzyme of MTB. The molecular docking studies suggest that the novel molecule shows favourable interaction at the three different binding sites as compared to five experimentally known inhibitors of DHDPS.     

Interaction of an Amphiphilic Peptide with a Phospholipid Bilayer Surface by Molecular Dynamics Simulation Study

Abstract

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is the principal neuroregulator of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion. Previous experiments have demonstrated that CRF binds avidly to the surface of single egg phosphatidylcholine vesicles and its amphiphilic secondary structure might play an important role in the function. In this study, the interaction of the residues 13–41 in human CRF with the surface of a DOPC bilayer was investigated by molecular dynamics (MD) simulation in order to understand the role of the membrane surface in the formation of the amphiphilic α helix as well as to determine the effects of the peptide on the lipid bilayer. The model used included 60 DOPC molecules, 1 helical peptide (CRF_13–41) on the bilayer surface, and explicit waters of solvation in the lipid polar head group regions, together with constant-volume periodic boundary conditions in three dimensions. The MD simulation was carried out for 510 ps. In addition, CRF_13–41, initially in a helical form, was simulated in vacuo as a control. The results indicate that while it was completely unstable in vacuo, the peptide helical form was generally maintained on the bilayer surface, but with distortions near the terminal ends. The peptide was confined to the bilayer headgroup/water region, similar to that reported from neutron diffraction measurement of tripeptides bound to the phosphatidylcholine bilayer surface (Ref 1). The amphiphilicity of the peptide matched that of the bilayer headgroup environment, with the hydrophilic side oriented toward water and the hydrophobic side making contact with the bilayer hydrocarbon core. These results support the hypothesis that the amphiphilic environment of a membrane surface is important in the induction of peptide amphiphilic α-helical secondary structure. Two major effects of the peptide on the lipids were found: the first CH₂ segment in the lipid chains was significantly disordered and the lipid headgroup distribution was broadened towards the water region.     

Direct and simultaneous identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) by rapid multiplex nested PCR-ICT assay

The Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) shows different virulence and host infection range from other members of the M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC). Differential identification of MTB from MTBC is thus important in certain occasions. The currently commercially available molecular assays which use either IS6110 or 16S rDNA fragment as identification targets are mainly designed for identifying MTBC but not for MTB. Comparative genomic DNA analysis has provided valuable information on regions of difference (RD) present in MTB but not in other members of the MTBC. RD9 region is further suggested to be a potential target for differential identification of MTB from MTBC. In this study, using IS6110 and Rv3618 (belong to RD9) as the specific identification targets for MTBC and MTB, respectively, we developed and tested a multiplex nested PCR-ICT (immuno-chromatography test) assay for simultaneously and directly detecting not only MTBC but also MTB from 1500 clinical sputum specimens. The results were compared with traditional culture and biochemical identification results together with patients' clinical assessments. This assay showed a 95.5% sensitivity, 97.9% specificity, 2.1% false positive rate and 4.5% false negative rate towards detection of MTBC, and a 93.0% sensitivity, 99.8% specificity, 0.2% false positive rate and 7.0% false negative rate for detection of MTB. This detection system shows great potential in clinical application.     

Comparative Molecular Dynamics Simulation Studies of Protegrin-1 Monomer and Dimer in Two Different Lipid Bilayers

Antimicrobial peptides interact specifically with the membrane of a pathogen and kill the pathogen by releasing its cellular contents. Protegrin-1 (PG-1), a β-hairpin antimicrobial peptide, is known to exist as a transmembrane monomer in a 1,2-dilauroylphosphatidylcholine (DLPC) bilayer and shows concentration-dependent oligomerization in a 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoylphosphatidylcholine (POPC) bilayer. To examine its structure, dynamics, orientation, and interaction in membranes, we performed comparative molecular dynamics simulations of PG-1 monomer and dimer in DLPC and POPC bilayers for a total of 840 ns. The PG-1 monomer exhibits larger tilting in DLPC than in POPC due to a hydrophobic mismatch. PG-1 tilting is dependent on its rotation angle. The specific orientation of PG-1 in membranes is governed by the interactions of its aromatic residues with lipid headgroups. The calculated ¹⁵N and ¹³CO chemical shifts of Val¹⁶ in DLPC reveal that there are different sets of tilt and rotation angles that satisfy the experimental values reasonably, suggesting that more experiments are needed to determine its orientation. The dimer simulations show that the dimer interface is better preserved in POPC than in DLPC because POPC's greater hydrophobic thickness causes reduced flexibility of the C-terminal strands. Both monomer and dimer simulations show membrane thinning around PG-1, largely due to arginine-lipid interactions.     

Molecular Dynamics Simulation Studies of Zeolite-A. IV. Structure and Dynamics of NH4 + ions in a Rigid Dehydrated Zeolite-A

Abstract

In recent papers [1–3] we reported molecular dynamics simulation studies of ions and water molecules adsorbed in a rigid zeolite-A framework using a simple Lennard-Jones potential plus Coulomb potential with Ewald summation to investigate the structure and dynamics of the adsorbates. In the present paper the same technique is applied to study the local structure and dynamics of NH₄ ⁺ ions in a rigid dehydrated zeolite-A. During the preliminary equilibration, the unstable NH₄(4) type ion (the 12th ion) is pushed down to near a more stable 6-ring position in the α-cage that is already associated with an NH₄(1) type ion (the 1st) in the β-cage, which moves to another 6-ring position in the β-cage that is already associated with an NH₄(2) type ion (the 7th) in the α-cage. Calculated x, y, and z coordinates of some NH₄ ⁺ ions are in good agreement with those obtained from an X-ray diffraction experiment except that no NH₄(4) type ion is found and there are six NH₄(2) type ions instead of 0.5 and 5.5 occupancy. The analyses of calculated interatomic distances and time correlation functions of these ions indicate that the NH₄(1 – 1) and NH₄(3) type ions are associated loosely with only one O (3) atom of the 6-ring and with only one O (1) atom of the 8-ring windows, respectively, while the NH₄(1–2) and NH₄(2) type ions are associated strongly with two or three O (3) atoms of the 6-ring windows in the α- and β-cages, respectively. The analysis of hydrogen bond time correlation functions of these ions indicate that about one, two or three, three, and one hydrogen bond of each NH₄(1–1), NH₄(1–2), NH₄(2) and NH₄(3) type ion is kept for 1.4, 21, 75, and 1.4 ps, respectively, before breakup of the hydrogen bond occurs and significant exchange of O atom hydrogen-bonded to the ion.     

Structure of the major triglycosyl phenol-phthiocerol of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (strain Canetti)

Phenol-phthiocerol glycolipids have been found previously in Mycobacterium leprae, M. kansasii, M. bovis and M. marinum, but not in M. tuberculosis. A search for glycolipids in this latter species showed that the Canetti strains of M. tuberculosis synthesize a major triglycosyl phenol-phthiocerol, accompanied by minor amounts of other glycolipids with a similar aglycone moiety. The triglycoside moiety has the following structure: 2,3,4-tri-O-methyl L-fucopyranosyl(alpha 1----3)L-rhamnopyranosyl(alpha 1----3)2-O-methyl L-rhamnopyranosyl(alpha 1-. The aglycone moiety consists in phenol-phthiocerol (two homologs). Its two secondary alcohol functions are esterified by mycocerosic acids (homologs with 26-32 carbon atoms and with 2-4 methyl branches). The proposed structure differs on several points from the M. leprae glycolipids, but presents some analogy with the major glycolipid of M. kansasii. A minor monoglycosyl phenol-phthiocerol was also studied. Its overall structure is very similar to that of M. bovis, with 2-O-methyl rhamnose as sugar moiety.