A Novel Activation Mechanism of Avian Influenza Virus H9N2 by Furin

Avian influenza virus H9N2 is prevalent in waterfowl and has become endemic in poultry in Asia and the Middle East. H9N2 influenza viruses have served as a reservoir of internal genes for other avian influenza viruses that infect humans, and several cases of human infection by H9N2 influenza viruses have indicated its pandemic potential. Fortunately, an extensive surveillance program enables close monitoring of H9N2 influenza viruses worldwide and has generated a large repository of virus sequences and phylogenetic information. Despite the large quantity of sequences in different databases, very little is known about specific virus isolates and their pathogenesis. Here, we characterize a low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus, A/chicken/Israel/810/2001 (H9N2) (Israel810), which is representative of influenza virus strains that have caused severe morbidity and mortality in poultry farms. We show that under certain circumstances the Israel810 hemagglutinin (HA) can be activated by furin, a hallmark of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. We demonstrate that Israel810 HA can be cleaved in cells with high levels of furin expression and that a mutation that eliminates a glycosylation site in HA₁ allows the Israel810 HA to gain universal cleavage in cell culture. Pseudoparticles generated from Israel810 HA, or the glycosylation mutant, transduce cells efficiently. In contrast, introduction of a polybasic cleavage site into Israel810 HA leads to pseudoviruses that are compromised for transduction. Our data indicate a mechanism for an H9N2 evolutionary pathway that may allow it to gain virulence in a distinct manner from H5 and H7 influenza viruses.     

Proprotein-processing endoproteases PC6 and furin both activate hemagglutinin of virulent avian influenza viruses.

Among the proprotein-processing subtilisin-related endoproteases, furin has been a leading candidate for the enzyme that activates the hemagglutinin (HA) of virulent avian influenza viruses. In the present study, we examined the cleavage activity of two other recently isolated ubiquitous subtilisin-related proteases, PACE4 and PC6, using wild-type HA of A/turkey/Ireland/1378/83 (H5N8) and a series of its mutant HAs. Vaccinia virus-expressed wild-type HA was not cleaved in human colon adenocarcinoma LoVo cells, which lack active furin. This processing defect was corrected by the expression of furin and PC6 but not of PACE4 and a control wild-type vaccinia virus. PC6 showed a sequence specificity similar to that with the endogenous proteases in cultured cells. When LoVo cells were infected with a virulent avian virus, A/turkey/Ontario/7732/66 (H5N9), only noninfectious virions were produced because of the lack of HA cleavage. However, when the cells were coinfected with vaccinia virus that expressed either furin or PC6, the avian virus underwent multiple cycles of replication, indicating that both furin and PC6 specifically cleave the virulent virus HA at the authentic site. These data suggest that PC6, as well as furin, can activate virulent avian influenza viruses in vivo, implying the presence of multiple HA cleavage enzymes in animals.     

Sequence specificity of furin, a proprotein-processing endoprotease, for the hemagglutinin of a virulent avian influenza virus.

The virulence of avian influenza viruses correlates with the sensitivity of their hemagglutinin (HA) to cellular proteases. Furin, a proprotein-processing subtilisin-related endoprotease, is a leading candidate for the enzyme that cleaves the HA of virulent avian viruses. We therefore compared the specificity of furin with those of proteases in a variety of cultured cells and in a rat Golgi fraction, using the HA cleavage mutants of a virulent avian influenza virus, A/Turkey/Ireland/1378/85 (H5N8). The results indicated similar sequence specificities among the endoproteases when purified furin was used. In experiments with the vaccinia virus expression system, overexpressed furin cleaved mutant HAs that were not recognized by the endogenous proteases, resulting in an apparent broader specificity of furin. These findings authenticate the proposed role of furin as an HA-activating protease in vivo and caution against the use of expression vectors to study protease sequence specificity.     

Marked endotheliotropism of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N1 following intestinal inoculation in cats

Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) H5N1 can infect mammals via the intestine; this is unusual since influenza viruses typically infect mammals via the respiratory tract. The dissemination of HPAIV H5N1 following intestinal entry and associated pathogenesis are largely unknown. To assess the route of spread of HPAIV H5N1 to other organs and to determine its associated pathogenesis, we inoculated infected chicken liver homogenate directly into the intestine of cats by use of enteric-coated capsules. Intestinal inoculation of HPAIV H5N1 resulted in fatal systemic disease. The spread of HPAIV H5N1 from the lumen of the intestine to other organs took place via the blood and lymphatic vascular systems but not via neuronal transmission. Remarkably, the systemic spread of the virus via the vascular system was associated with massive infection of endothelial and lymphendothelial cells, resulting in widespread hemorrhages. This is unique for influenza in mammals and resembles the pathogenesis of HPAIV infection in terrestrial poultry. It contrasts with the pathogenesis of systemic disease from the same virus following entry via the respiratory tract, where lesions are characterized mainly by necrosis and inflammation and are associated with the presence of influenza virus antigen in parenchymal, not endothelial cells. The marked endotheliotropism of the virus following intestinal inoculation indicates that the pathogenesis of systemic influenza virus infection in mammals may differ according to the portal of entry.     

Generation of seal influenza virus variants pathogenic for chickens, because of hemagglutinin cleavage site changes.

Influenza virus A/seal/Mass/1/80 (H7N7) was adapted to grow in MDCK cells and chicken embryo cells (CEC) in the absence of exogenous protease. The biological properties of the virus variants obtained coincided with intracellular activation of the hemagglutinin (HA) by posttranslational proteolytic cleavage and depended on the cell type used for adaptation. MDCK cell-adapted variants contained point mutations in regions of the HA more distant from the cleavage site. It is proposed that these mutations are probably responsible, through an unknown mechanism, for enhanced cleavability of HA in MDCK cells. Such virus variants were apathogenic in chickens. CEC-adapted variants, on the other hand, contained an insertion of basic amino acids at the HA cleavage site, in addition to scattered point mutations. The insertions converted the cleavage sites in the variant virus HAs so that they came to resemble the cleavage site found in highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. CEC variants with such cleavage site modifications were highly pathogenic for chickens. The lethal outcome of the infection in chickens demonstrated for the first time that an influenza virus derived from a mammalian species can be modified during adaptation to a new cell type to such an extent that the resulting virus variant becomes pathogenic for an avian species.     

共表达新城疫病毒F基因和H9亚型禽流感病毒HA基因的重组鸡痘病毒

应用RT PCR扩增出新城疫病毒F4 8E8株融合蛋白 (F)基因 ,将其克隆入pGEM Teasyvector构建重组质粒pGEM TF并进行测序确证。分别从pGEM T和pUCHA切下F基因和H9亚型禽流感病毒F株 (A chicken china F 1 998)血凝素 (HA)基因 ,通过一系列分子生物学操作步骤插入到质粒pFPV7S中的鸡痘病毒基因组复制非必需片段构建重组质粒p7SHF ,其中F基因和HA基因分别由鸡痘病毒启动子PE L和合成启动子PS调控。最后将P1 1 LacZ报告基因表达盒插入质粒p7SHF获得转移载体pFPVHF ,用以转染已预先感染鸡痘病毒 2 82E4疫苗株的鸡胚成纤维细胞 (CEF)。通过在含有X Gal的营养琼脂上连续挑选蓝色病毒蚀斑获得并纯化重组病毒。PCR和Southernblot检测证实了F基因和HA基因已插入鸡痘病毒的基因组 ;间接免疫荧光试验结果表明重组病毒能够同时正确表达HA和F蛋白。     

Chemical and enzymatic synthesis and antiviral properties of 2'-deoxy-2'-fluoroguanosine.

Chemical and enzymatic methods were employed for the synthesis of the title compound, 2'F-Guo 7. High antiviral activity of 2'F-Guo was established in chick embryo cells infected with influenza virus FPV/Rostock/34 (H7N1) and herpes simplex virus (HSV) type I (1C strain).     

Robust and ubiquitous GFP expression in a single generation of chicken embryos using the avian retroviral vector,RCASBP

Functional genomics in avian models has lagged behind that of mammals, and the production of transgenic birds has proven to be challenging and time-consuming. All current methods rely upon breeding chimeric birds through at least one generation. Here, we report a rapid method for the ubiquitous expression of GFP in chicken embryos in a single generation (G-0), using the avian retroviral vector, Replication-Competent Avian sarcoma-leukosis virus, with a Splice acceptor, Bryan RSV Pol (RCASBP). High-titre RCASBP retrovirus carrying eGFP was injected into unincubated (stage X) blastoderms in ovo. This resulted in stable and widespread expression of eGFP throughout development in a very high proportion of embryos. Transgenic tissues were identified by fluorescence and immunohistochemistry. These results indicate that chicken blastodermal cells are permissive for infection by the RCASBP virus. This system represents a rapid and efficient method of producing global gene expression in the chicken embryo. The method can be used to generate avian cells with a stable genetic marker, or to induce global expression of a gene of choice. Interestingly, in day 8.5 embryos, somatic cells the embryonic gonads were predominantly GFP positive but primordial germ cells were GFP negative, indicating viral silencing in the embryonic germline. This dichotomy in the gonads allows the isolation or enrichment of the germ cells through negative selection during embryonic stages. This transgenic chicken model is of value in developmental studies, and for the isolation and study of avian primordial germ cells.     

表达H9亚型禽流感病毒血凝素基因的重组鸡痘病毒及其免疫效力

以RTPCR法扩增获得H9亚型禽流感病毒(AIV)分离株(A/Chicken/China/F/1998)的血凝素(HA)基因,将其定向插入鸡痘病毒转移载体1175的痘苗病毒启动子P75的下游,得到重组转移载体1175HA。以脂质体转染法将1175HA转染至已感染鸡痘病毒282E4疫苗株(wtFPV)的鸡胚成纤维细胞(CEF)中,通过在含Xgal的营养琼脂上连续挑选蓝色病毒蚀斑获得并纯化rFPVHA。以间接免疫荧光法证实感染rFPVHA的CEF表达了HA。rFPVHA在免疫7日龄SPF鸡7天后即能诱生可检出的血凝抑制(HI)抗体,14天后诱生的HI抗体到达高峰,且诱生的HI抗体保持较高水平达55天。在7日龄SPF鸡及含抗FPV母源抗体的商品鸡上进行的免疫效力试验表明,rFPVＨＶ能显著抑制静脉攻毒后免疫鸡从泄殖腔的排毒,效果与AIV全病毒灭活苗相当。     

表达鸡白细胞介素2重组鸡痘病毒的构建及其体外表达产物生物活性的检测

从ConA刺激的鸡脾细胞中扩增出鸡白细胞介素2（ChIL-2）基因编码区。将该编码区Cdna序列和调控其转录的鸡痘病毒早晚期启动子（PE/L）的基因片段定向克隆到鸡痘病毒转移载体p1175中,获得重组转移载体P1175il2,然后转染已感染鸡痘病毒282E4疫苗株（wt-FPV）的鸡胚成纤维细胞（CEF）,质粒P1175il2与wt-FPV基因组DNA发生同源重组,产生了表达ChIL-2的重组鸡痘病毒Rfpv-IL2。通过在含X-gal的营养琼脂上连续挑选蓝色病毒蚀斑,获得并纯化重组鸡痘病毒Rfpv-IL2。应用XTT/PMS方法检测的Rfpv-IL2 （M.O.I 2.0）感染CEF 72小时后细胞上清中表达的重组ChIL-2生物活性,效价为3.6×105u/Ml,表明Rfpv-IL2能有效地表达ChIL-2。下一步将利用Rfpv-IL2在体内表达ChIL-2,研究ChIL-2的免疫增强作用及其作用机理。     

Chromomycin A3 inhibits influenza a virus multiplication in chick embryo fibroblast cells

The multiplication of Ulster 73 virus, an avian strain of type A influenza virus, was blocked in chick embryo fibroblast cells, CEF, by treatment with 0.5 microg/ml of chromomycin A3 whereas in LLC-MK2 cells no inhibition of replication was observed. Virus-induced polypeptide synthesis in chick embryo fibroblast cells was confined to the synthesis of PB2, PB1 and PA subunits of the RNA dependent-RNA polymerase, the nucleoprotein NP, the non-structural protein NS1, the haemagglutinin HA, the non-structural protein NS2; only the membrane M1 polypeptide synthesis was greatly inhibited. Viral unpolyadenylated cRNAs synthesis was studied at a late time of the infection, 8 hours p.i.: chromomycin A3 was able to inhibit the "novo" synthesis of complementary RNA poly(A)- and segment 7 of virion RNA. The mode of action of the drug in chick embryo fibroblast cells is discussed.     

Impact of chicken-origin cells on adaptation of a low pathogenic influenza virus

Understanding the growth dynamics of influenza viruses is an essential step in virus replication and cell-adaptation. The aim of this study was to elucidate the growth kinetic of a low pathogenic avian influenza H9N2 subtype in chicken embryo fibroblast (CEF) and chicken tracheal epithelial (CTE) cells during consecutive passages. An egg-adapted H9N2 virus was seeded into both cell culture systems. The amount of infectious virus released into the cell culture supernatants at interval times post-infection were titered and plaque assayed. The results as well as cell viability results indicate that the infectivity of the influenza virus was different among these primary cells. The egg-adapted H9N2 virus featured higher infectivity in CTE than in CEF cells. After serial passages and plaque purifications of the virus, a CTE cell-adapted strain was generated which carried amino acid substitutions within the HA stem region. The strain showed faster replication kinetics in cell culture resulting in an increase in virus titer. Overall, the present study provides the impact of cell type, multiplicity of infection, cellular protease roles in virus infectivity and finally molecular characterization during H9N2 virus adaptation procedure.     

Somatic transgenesis in the avian model system

The chick embryo is a versatile model system, in which classical embryology can be combined with modern molecular approaches. In the last two decades, several efficient methods have been developed to introduce exogenous genes into the chick embryo. These techniques allow alteration of gene expression levels in a spatially and temporally restricted manner, thereby circumventing embryonic lethality and/or eliminating secondary effects in other tissues. Here, we present the current status of avian somatic transgenic techniques, focusing on electroporation and retrovirus-mediated gene transfer. Electroporation allows quick and efficient gain-of-function studies based on transient misexpression of genes. Retroviral vectors, which are capable of integrating exogenous genes into the host chromosome, permit analysis of long-term effects of gene misexpression. The variety of methods available for somatic transgenesis, along with the recent completion of the chicken genome, are transforming the chick embryo into one of the most attractive model systems to examine function of genes that are important for embryonic development.     

Normal or Retrovirus-Infected Cultured Chicken Embryo Cells Express the 48,000 D Age-Related Antigen Characteristic of Embryonic Chicken Erythrocytes

The surface of normal or retrovirus-infected chick embryo cells was labelled with ¹²⁵I using lactoperoxidase. The solubilized membrane material was allowed to react with antisera raised in rabbits to cultured chick embryo cells or to the membranes of embryonic or adult chicken erythrocytes. Analysis of the immunoprecipitates shows that chicken embryo cells not of erythropoietic origin express on their surface membrane an antigenic polypeptide of mol. wt. 48,000 daltons (D), which appears to be identical with that expressed on embryonic chicken erythrocytes.     

鸡α干扰素基因的克隆、原核表达及抗病毒效果研究

通过PCR从三黄肉鸡的肝脏基因组中扩增了鸡α干扰素(ChIFN-α)全长基因。序列分析表明ChIFN-α基因全长582bp,亚克隆其成熟蛋白编码基因(489bp),利用基因重组技术构建了E.coli/pET-28a( )-IFNα,使IFN-α置于pET-28a的T7启动子下游并同6×His(多聚组氨酸标签)-Tag融合。经酶切鉴定,DNA测序证实重组质粒构建正确;将重组质粒转化大肠杆菌BL21(DE3),IPTG诱导表达,SDS-PAGE,Western-blot分析证实表达出22kD左右的融合蛋白,表达的蛋白以不溶性的包涵体形式存在并且具有良好的免疫学活性。提纯的包涵体纯度可达70%以上,用镍亲和层析方法纯化蛋白则可达到95%。经透析复性后的蛋白在鸡胚成纤维细胞上能够抑制H9N2禽流感病毒的复制。鸡胚试验中重组干扰素抗病毒效果好在H9N2禽流感病毒攻毒组中,能保护鸡胚并使其孵出率达到100%的重组干扰素最小蛋白含量为2μg;重组干扰素对新城疫病毒复制也有一定的抑制能力,延迟该病毒复制时间为12h至48h;雏鸡试验表明重组干扰素也能较好地抵抗H9N2禽流感病毒对雏鸡的感染。两组试验均表明,亲和层析纯化蛋白是包涵体蛋白活性的20倍左右。     

蛋氨酸脑啡肽（MEK）抗B型流感病毒感染作用的研究

研究MEK抗B型流感病毒感染的作用。采用MDCK细胞和9～10日龄鸡胚,按不同的顺序加入不同剂量MEK和B型流感病毒,共培养72 h后做血凝实验。所有加入B型流感病毒的MDCK细胞均培养出病毒,HA滴度为1：64。在鸡胚尿囊腔中,先注入MEK孵育24 h后,再注入B型流感病毒的鸡胚也培养出病毒,HA滴度为1：6.8,与病毒对照组比较P〈0.01,有统计学意义。实验结果未见MEK直接抗B型流感病毒感染MDCK细胞株的作用,但可见MEK抗B型流感病毒感染鸡胚的作用。     

FH3, a v-myc avian retrovirus with limited transforming ability.

We have isolated a new acute avian transforming virus which contains the oncogene myc. This virus, designated FH3, was isolated after injection of a 10-day-old chick embryo with avian leukosis virus. While FH3 shares many properties with other v-myc-containing avian retroviruses, it also has several unique properties. The primary target for transformation in vitro is chicken macrophages; infection of chicken fibroblasts does not lead to complete morphological transformation. FH3 also exhibits a limited host range, in that Japanese quail macrophages and fibroblasts are infected but are not completely transformed. FH3 induces in vivo a limited tumor type if injected into 10-day-old chick embryos; only a cranial myelocytoma, which does not appear to be metastatic, can be detected. The v-myc gene of FH3 is expressed predominantly as a P145 Gag-Myc protein which is encoded by a ca. 8-kilobase genomic RNA. This FH3-encoded polyprotein is localized in the nucleus of all infected cells, whether or not they are transformed.     

一株鹅源H5N2亚型高致病性禽流感病毒的分离鉴定及生物学特性分析

分离到一株鹅源 H5N2亚型高致病性禽流感病毒,SPF鸡静脉接种致病指数为2.99,但鸭子对该病毒不敏感．病毒感染小鼠后不致病,但能够在肺内有效复制,表明其具有感染哺乳动物的潜在风险．血凝素(hemagglutinin, HA)蛋白裂解位点上插入有多个连续的碱性氨基酸(-RRRKKR-),从分子上证实这是一株高致病性禽流感病毒．核酸序列比较分析表明,分离的流感病毒HA基因与A/chicken/Hubei/489/2004 (H5N1)同源率达到99.4%,神经氨酸酶(neuraminidase, NA)基因与A/chicken/Jilin/53/01(H9N2)同源率达到99.8%;氨基酸水平上,HA与2004年分离到的A/chicken/Hubei/489/2004(H5N1)、A/swan/Guangxi/307/2004(H5N1)、A/wildduck/Guangdong/314/　2004(H5N1)和A/chicken/Henan/210/2004(H5N1)同源率均为99.3%,NA 与A/chicken/Jilin/53/01(H9N2)同源率为99.6%．进化树分析结果表明,该流感病毒分离株可能是由H5N1和H9N2两个亚型病毒重排而来．     

Vasculogenesis and angiogenesis in the mouse embryo studied using quail/mouse chimeras

Using quail/chick chimeras, we have previously shown that different embryonic territories are vascularized through two distinct mecanisms, angiogenesis and vasculogenesis. Angiogenesis occurs in tissues of somatopleural origin, vasculogenesis occurs in territories of splanchnopleural origin. The aim of this work was to establish if these modes of vascularization were conserved in the mammalian embryo. Since in vivo manipulations with mammalian embryos are difficult to perform, we used a quail/mouse chimera approach. Mouse limb buds of somatopleural origin, and visceral organ rudiments of splanchnopleural origin, were grafted into the coelomic cavity of 2.5 day-old quail embryos. After four to seven days, the hosts were killed and the origin of the endothelial cells in the mouse tissues was determined by double staining with the quail endothelial and hematopoietic cell-specific marker, QH1 and mouse-specific VEGFR2 and VEGFR3 probes. Our findings show that the great majority of vessels which developed in the mouse limbs was QH1+, indicating that these tissues were vascularized by angiogenesis. Conversely, visceral organs were vascularized through the vasculogenesis process by mouse endothelial cells which differentiated in situ. These results demonstrate for the first time that in the mouse embryo, as previously shown in avian species, the tissues from somatopleural origin are vascularized by angiogenesis, while rudiments of a splanchnopleural origin are vascularized by vasculogenesis, both at vascular and lymphatic levels.     

Characterization of a highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus isolated from an ostrich

The continued spread of a highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus among poultry and wild birds has posed a potential threat to human public health. An influenza pandemic happens, when a new subtype that has not previously circulated in humans emerges. Almost all of the influenza pandemics in history have originated from avian influenza viruses (AIV). Birds are significant reservoirs of influenza viruses. In the present study, we performed a survey of avian influenza virus in ostriches and H5N1 virus (A/Ostrich/SuZhou/097/03, China097) was isolated. This H5N1 virus is highly pathogenic to both chickens and mice. It is also able to replicate in the lungs of, and to cause death in, BALB/c mice following intranasal administration. It forms plaques in chicken embryo fibroblast (CEF) cells in the absence of trypsin. The hemagglutinin (HA) gene of the virus is genetically similar to A/Goose/Guangdong/1/96(H5N1) and belongs to clade 0. The HA sequence contains multiple basic amino acids adjacent to the cleavage site, a motif associated with HPAI viruses. More importantly, the existence of H5N1 isolates in ostriches highlights the potential threat of wild bird infections to veterinary and public health.