International prospects for cooperation in crop research

Agricultural research is increasingly a global effort. No country can remain isolated in agricultural research without damaging its capacity to respond to challenges to agricultural productivity. In this paper, we explore the role of botany in the international effort to raise and stabilize farm yields. Given the importance of wild species in crop breeding and the increasing use of wild species to upgrade crops, the value of systematics is underlined. The contribution of plant physiology is also discussed, particularly with reference to mechanisms of resistance to pests and diseases and tolerance to adverse soils and climates. The crucial role of ecological studies based on field work is also underscored, particularly as it applies to wild plants and natural genepools, as well as crop protection. The necessity for continued support of botanical studies and gardens is emphasized in the light of the global effort to conserve and utilize crop genetic diversity. Finally, we examine some developments in mycology and biotechnology that have implications for agriculture and pinpoint opportunities for increased collaboration between botanists and agricultural scientists.     

International cooperation on western corn rootworm ecology research: state-of-the-art and future research

1 Invasive pest species are challenging partly because the invasion process may be highly dynamic and because of the lack of knowledge of many researchers, professionals and farmers in the newly-invaded regions. The chrysomelid Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte is such an invasive pest. It has been the main pest of continuous maize in the U.S.A. for more than 60 years and is currently spreading throughout Europe.
2 In the area with a long history of this pest (Central and North America), scientific knowledge concerning the ecology of this pest has accumulated over the last decades. This resource is of great importance to both America and Europe and has to be gathered, shared and adapted to new situations. We therefore examined, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the scientific literature relating to D.   virgifera virgifera ecology.
3 The quantitative analysis suggests that research on D.   virgifera virgifera ecology is still in its infancy in Europe and suffers from geographical barriers (between Europe and North America and between linguistic areas within Europe) and that scientific communication should be strengthened both between North America and Europe and within Europe.
4 As a first solution to this problem, we introduce three companion review articles that constitute a landmark for D.   virgifera virgifera research, enabling European and American scientists and decision-makers to orient themselves and discover new opportunities for research. We also stress that international research cooperation is the most important key to successfully manage invasive species.     

Piscine islet xenotransplantation

Tilapia, a teleost fish species with large anatomically discrete islet organs (Brockmann bodies; BBs) that can be easily harvested without expensive and fickle islet isolation procedures, make an excellent donor species for experimental islet xenotransplantation research. When transplanted into streptozotocin-diabetic nude or severe combined immunodeficient mice, BBs provide long-term normoglycemia and mammalian-like glucose tolerance profiles. However, when transplanted into euthymic recipients, the mechanism of islet xenograft rejection appears very similar to that of islets from "large animal" donor species such as the very popular fetal/neonatal porcine islet cell clusters (ICCs). Tilapia islets are more versatile than ICCs and can be transplanted (1) into the renal subcapsular space, the cryptorchid or noncryptorchid testis, or intraportally as neovascularized cell transplants; (2) as directly vascularized organ transplants; or (3) intraperitoneally after microencapsulation. Unlike the popular porcine ICCs, BBs function immediately after transplantation; thus, their rejection can be assessed on the basis of loss of function as well as other parameters. We have also shown that transplantation of tilapia BBs into nude mice can be used to study the possible implications of cross-species physiological incompatibilities in xenotransplantation. Unfortunately, tilapia BBs might be unsuitable for clinical islet xenotransplantation because tilapia insulin differs from human insulin by 17 amino acids and, thus, would be immunogenic and less biologically active in humans. Therefore, we have produced transgenic tilapia that express a "humanized" tilapia insulin gene. Future improvements on these transgenic fish may allow tilapia to play an important role in clinical islet xenotransplantation.     

Carbohydrates in xenotransplantation

The success of allotransplantation has led to an increasing shortage of human organs from deceased donors. This crisis could be resolved by the use of organs from an anatomically suitable animal, such as the pig. The pig and human have, however, been evolving differently for approximately 80 million years, and numerous immunological and physiological barriers have developed that need to be overcome. Differences in carbohydrate epitopes on pig and human cells have been found to play a major role in some of the immunological barriers that have been identified to date. The rejection caused by the presence of galactose-alpha1,3-galactose (Gal) on the pig vascular endothelium and of natural anti-Gal antibodies in humans has recently been prevented by the breeding of pigs that do not express Gal, achieved by knocking out the gene for the enzyme alpha1,3-galactosyltransferase, which was made possible by the introduction of nuclear transfer/embryo transfer techniques. N-glycolylneuraminic acid (the so-called Hanganutziu-Deicher antigen) has been identified as another carbohydrate antigen present in pigs that may need to be deleted if xenotransplantation is to be successful, although some doubt remains regarding its importance. There remain other antipig antibodies against hitherto unidentified antigenic targets that may well be involved in graft destruction; their possible carbohydrate target epitopes are discussed.     

International cooperation in salmon fisheries and a comparative law perspective on the salmon and ocean ranching industry

Abstract

The salmon industry has steadily developed during the last two decades, leading to an increasing awareness about the legal problems that need to be solved. Both production in ocean ranching and in captivity have prompted the enactment of important rules of international and domestic law. While international law has provided for a basic regulatory framework, embodied in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and a number of regional and bilateral treaties, domestic law has concentrated on the specific technical issues that relate to conservation, fishing rights, and organization of the industry generally.

The article discusses the aggregate of legal rules applicable to salmon production, including the comparative law perspective emerging from the national legislations of the main producers in the world. Various legal and economic models are identified and their incidence on the industry is examined in light of actual experiences. The rules of international law in the field are becoming consolidated, and domestic legislation is contributing new insights into the matter while, in addition, exercising a strong influence in the formation of customary law.     

Debates in xenotransplantation: on the consequences of contradiction

Abstract

This paper addresses disputes in the transplantation of tissues from transgenic animals to humans (XTP) between a number of biotech firms and several UK-based animal advocacy groups. Debates centre on the management of human and non-human identity, the indeterminacies of therapeutic efficacy and the risks of trans- species disease. Both constituencies make use of moral/cultural and scientific repertoires to advance their arguments.

Science and Technology Studies treatments of the dynamics between scientific institutions and pressure group Non-governmental organizations tend to emphasize the epistemological privileges of the former over the latter. However, the XTP case highlights a strategic flexibility enabling animal advocacy groups to deploy social and scientific arguments that are fundamentally contradictory. Such contradictions are much more difficult for scientific institutions to maintain, given the rigidities of the material and symbolic resources from which they derive their expertise in the first place.     

Technique for primate heterotopic cardiac xenotransplantation

Heterotopic cardiac transplantation in the primate is a valuable method for the evaluation of immuno-suppressive regimens. This report describes our technique for heterotopic transplantation of cardiac grafts into the neck of baboons. Preliminary experience with cross-genus cardiac transplantation in the nonhuman primate is discussed.     

Ethical and legal issues in xenotransplantation

In most western countries, there is a 'human organ shortage' with waiting lists for the performance of transplantation. In a recent report of the UNOS Ethics Committee it is stated that there are approximately 31,000 potential recipients on waiting lists, but only one fourth of potential donors gave their specific consent.
Xenotransplantation – defined as the transplantation of animal cells, tissues or organs into human beings – is associated with particular ethical dilemmas, namely the problems of efficiency and safety of this medical procedure. The objective of this study is to analyse the ethical dilemmas in xenotransplantation with the background of a personal view of moral life. Also, xenotransplantation will be evaluated as far as the legal regulation of transplantation is concerned. In particular, we will consider patients rights in accordance with existing laws on organ and tissue transplantation, animal research and clinical trials.     

A shrewd and ethical approach to xenotransplantation

Policies surrounding xenotransplantation, and many other emerging high-technology interventions, must balance opportunity and risk. Whereas traditional stakeholders, such as the researcher community, government agencies and the commercial sector, readily contribute to the debates that influence policies, the voice of the public is seldom heard. Not only does this raise ethical concerns but also it might ultimately prove to be shortsighted. Before any country settles unilaterally on comprehensive policies governing the practice of xenotransplantation, well-informed public opinions need to be taken into account.