Biological vs. social, economic and political priority-setting in conservation

The most influential conservation priority‐setting approaches emphasize biodiversity and threats when deciding where to focus investment. However, socio‐economic and political attributes of nations influence the effectiveness of conservation actions. A combination of biological and sociological variables in the context of a ‘return on investment’ framework for establishing conservation priorities was explored. While there was some overlap between megadiversity nations and return on investment priorities, only a few countries emerged as high priorities irrespective of which factors were included in the analysis. Conversely, some countries that ranked highly as priorities for conservation when focusing solely on biological metrics, did not rank highly when governance, population pressure, economic costs and conservation needs were considered (e.g. Colombia, Ecuador, Indonesia and Venezuela). No priority‐setting scheme is a priori superior to alternative approaches. However, the analyses suggest that attention to governance and return on investment may alter biocentric assessments of ideal conservation investments.     

Habitat structure and prey composition generate contrasting effects on carotenoid‐based coloration of great tit Parus major nestlings

Carotenoid‐based coloration of nestling plumage is generally considered a reliable signal of quality and has consistently been related to habitat structure. The main hypothesis proposed to explain this correlation is that high quality habitats contain high quality food, which in return affects the expression of carotenoid‐based plumage. It therefore assumes that, at the population level, the link between habitat structure and food composition is consistent and more relevant than inter‐individual differences in foraging ability or parental investment. In addition, it is assumed by default that food and habitat produce concordant effects on nestling coloration. In this work we evaluated habitat structure and prey composition in addition to several measures of parental investment. We investigated their relative effect on carotenoid‐based plumage coloration (lightness, chroma and hue) of great tit Parus major nestlings. We found a low correlation between carotenoid‐based coloration of nestlings and that of their parents. Nestling coloration, especially lightness and chroma, increased with the intake of more spiders. The time of breeding was positively correlated with lightness and chroma and negatively correlated with hue. Finally, the maturity of oak trees surrounding nest‐boxes correlated negatively with lightness, and the size of all tree species surrounding nest‐boxes correlated positively with hue of chick plumage. Our findings support the view that habitat structure and prey composition may produce divergent effects on feather pigmentation, and that prey proportions and variables related to parental investment should be assessed when considering carotenoid‐based coloration of chicks. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 113 , 547–555.     

Putting it back: Woody debris in young restoration plantings to stimulate return of reptiles

Despite active investment in restoration, some habitat features can be slow to develop on formerly degraded land and can consequently pose persistent barriers to the re‐establishment of specialist species. Coarse woody debris (CWD) is a critical resource for a whole suite of animal taxa but remains an underappreciated component of some forest ecosystems and restoration activities. The extent to which recovery of animal communities can be accelerated through artificial supplementation of woody debris is poorly understood especially for highly diverse tropical forest systems. Here, we report early results from an experiment designed to manipulate CWD in young restoration plantings (0–7 year old) in tropical north‐east Australia for the purposes of facilitating re‐establishment of rainforest reptiles. After 1 year, we demonstrate that CWD addition within restoration plantings adjacent to remnant forest can increase the local abundance of reptiles and promote colonisation of the log‐specialist Prickly Skink (Gnypetoscincus queenslandiae). These preliminary results, however, are based on observations of just 44 individual reptiles encompassing seven species. Ongoing monitoring will elucidate longer‐term outcomes to enable a proper evaluation of when and where CWD addition might be most beneficial in realising restoration goals.     

Habitat suitability for tsessebe Damaliscus lunatus lunatus

The distribution and numbers of tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus lunatus) have declined considerably in South Africa, partly due to deteriorating habitat conditions. Identifying important habitat variables will assist in managing the species. The objective of this study was to identify habitat variables important for tsessebe and to develop a predictive model of habitat selection for this species in a savanna biome. The study was conducted in the Nylsvley Nature Reserve over a 2‐year period. A total of eighteen habitat variables were measured in ten plant communities at 200 sites. Logistic regression analyses were used to identify predictor variables and to construct a habitat model. Tsessebe were found <2 km from the nearest source of water, in flat areas with slopes of <3° and with <10% rockiness. Their distribution was not influenced by the woody component. Sites where tsessebe were present had significantly lower grass heights and tuft heights, with a higher grass density compared with areas not utilized by tsessebe. Nitrogen and sodium levels were also higher at present sites. Habitat type and grass height were the most significant predictors of tsessebe presence. The selected model had an overall percentage prediction of 85.0%. The model was subdivided into five vegetation‐specific models and each model was tested with independent data.     

When does it pay to invest in a patch? The evolution of intentional niche construction

Humans modify their environments in ways that significantly transform the earth's ecosystems. 1 - 3 Recent research suggests that such niche‐constructing behaviors are not passive human responses to environmental variation, but instead should be seen as active and intentional management of the environment. 4 - 10 Although such research is useful in highlighting the interactive dynamics between humans and their natural world, the niche‐construction framework, as currently applied, fails to explain why people would decide to modify their environments in the first place. 11 - 13 To help resolve this problem, we use a model of technological intensification 14 , 15 to analyze the cost‐benefit trade‐offs associated with niche construction as a form of patch investment. We use this model to assess the costs and benefits of three paradigmatic cases of intentional niche construction in Western North America: the application of fire in acorn groves, the manufacture of fishing weirs, and the adoption of maize agriculture. Intensification models predict that investing in patch modification (niche construction) only provides a net benefit when the amount of resources needed crosses a critical threshold that makes the initial investment worthwhile. From this, it follows that low‐cost investments, such as burning in oak groves, should be quite common, while more costly investments, such as maize agriculture, should be less common and depend on the alternatives available in the local environment. We examine how patterns of mobility, 16 risk management, 17 territoriality, 12 and private property 18 also co‐evolve with the costs and benefits of niche construction. This approach illustrates that explaining niche‐constructing behavior requires understanding the economic trade‐offs involved in patch investment. Integrating concepts from niche construction and technological intensification models within a behavioral ecological framework provides insights into the coevolution and active feedback between adaptive behaviors and environmental change across human history.     

Habitat utilization and home range of the redwing francolin, Francolinus levaillantii, in highland grasslands, Mpumalanga province, South Africa

The effects of intensive commercial livestock farming on the distribution and habitat use of the redwing francolin, Francolinus levaillantii, was investigated to identify habitat constraints that may contribute towards the observed decline of this species on livestock farms. Data on the size, placement of the home ranges and compositional habitat use from ten radio‐tracked individuals, five in commercially grazed (and frequently burned) and five in protected (and infrequently burned) highland grasslands, was collated to determine habitat preferences. Mean home range size within protected and grazed grassland study sites were similar and ranged between 7.6 and 15.4 hectares. However, habitat use by groups in grazed grasslands was restricted to areas of greater cover and food availability. Group sizes were significantly larger in protected (mean 3.77, n = 111 coveys) than in grazed and frequently burned grassland (mean = 2.96, n = 135 coveys). Smaller coveys in grazed habitats had smaller home ranges and were further spaced from one another. It is therefore suggested that habitat degradation, through excessive defoliation of the grassland from heavy grazing and frequent burning, both fragments francolin subpopulations and reduces the ecological availability of suitable habitat. Thus, undermining the metapopulation structure of the redwing francolin in these commercially grazed grasslands.     

Experimental test of genetic rescue in isolated populations of brook trout

Genetic rescue is an increasingly considered conservation measure to address genetic erosion associated with habitat loss and fragmentation. The resulting gene flow from facilitating migration may improve fitness and adaptive potential, but is not without risks (e.g., outbreeding depression). Here, we conducted a test of genetic rescue by translocating ten (five of each sex) brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) from a single source to four nearby and isolated stream populations. To control for the demographic contribution of translocated individuals, ten resident individuals (five of each sex) were removed from each recipient population. Prior to the introduction of translocated individuals, the two smallest above‐barrier populations had substantially lower genetic diversity, and all populations had reduced effective number of breeders relative to adjacent below‐barrier populations. In the first reproductive bout following translocation, 31 of 40 (78%) translocated individuals reproduced successfully. Translocated individuals contributed to more families than expected under random mating and generally produced larger full‐sibling families. We observed relatively high (>20%) introgression in three of the four recipient populations. The translocations increased genetic diversity of recipient populations by 45% in allelic richness and 25% in expected heterozygosity. Additionally, strong evidence of hybrid vigour was observed through significantly larger body sizes of hybrid offspring relative to resident offspring in all recipient populations. Continued monitoring of these populations will test for negative fitness effects beyond the first generation. However, these results provide much‐needed experimental data to inform the potential effectiveness of genetic rescue‐motivated translocations.     

Coral reef flounders,Bothus lunatus,choose substrates on which they can achieve camouflage with their limited body pattern repertoire

Camouflage is a common tactic to avoid detection or recognition by predators and prey. Flounders have adaptive camouflage but a limited body pattern repertoire. We tested whether peacock flounders actively select or avoid certain substrates to more effectively use their limited camouflaging ability. We acquired and analyzed ten 30‐min videos of individual flounders on a coral reef in Bonaire, Dutch Caribbean. Using Manly's beta resource selection indices, we were able to confirm that peacock flounders at this location preferred to settle on neutral‐coloured substrates, such as sand and dead coral. Moreover, they avoided live coral, cyanobacteria, and sponges, which are often brightly coloured (e.g. yellow, orange, and purple). Quantitative analyses of photographs of settled flounders indicate that they use uniform and mottled camouflage patterns, and that the small‐to‐moderate spatial scale of their physiologically controlled light and dark skin components limits their camouflage capabilities to substrates with similar colour and spatial frequencies. These fishes changed their body pattern very fast. We did not observe disruptive body patterns, which are generally characterized by large‐scale skin components and higher contrast. The results suggest that flounders are using visual information to actively choose substrates on which they can achieve general background resemblance. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 114 , 629–638.     

Terminal investment strategies following infection are dependent on diet

When future reproductive potential is threatened, for example following infection, the terminal investment hypothesis predicts that individuals will respond by investing preferentially in current reproduction. Terminal investment involves reallocating resources to current reproductive effort, so it is likely to be influenced by the quantity and quality of resources acquired through diet. Dietary protein specifically has been shown to impact both immunity and reproduction in a range of organisms, but its impact on terminal investment is unclear. We challenged females from ten naturally derived fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) genotypes with the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We then placed these on either a standard or isocaloric high‐protein diet, and measured multiple components of reproductive investment. As oogenesis requires protein, and flies increase egg production with protein intake, we hypothesized that terminal investment would be easier to observe if protein was not already limiting. Oral exposure to the pathogen triggered an increase in reproductive investment. However, whereas flies feeding on a high‐protein diet increased the number of eggs laid when exposed to P. aeruginosa, those fed the standard diet did not increase the number of eggs laid but increased egg‐to‐adult viability following infection. This suggests that the specific routes through which flies terminally invest are influenced by the protein content of the maternal diet. We discuss the importance of considering diet and natural routes of infection when measuring nonimmunological defences.     

Quantifying structural variation in contour feathers to address functional variation and life history trade‐offs

Body feathers are important to many interactions birds have with their physical and social environments, such as streamlining the body for flight, thermoregulation, and social signaling. Birds differ dramatically in the texture of their body plumage depending on species and age class, likely reflecting different functional demands and age‐related trade‐offs in feather production. Despite the important insights potentially offered by studying variation in the structure of body feathers, there is no clear system for quantifying this variation. We present methods for quantifying age and species differences in the structure of body feathers. Most variation in our measures is due to species and age‐class differences, with little variance attributable to individual birds or to differences among feathers sampled from the same bird. We use our measures to test the hypothesis that the loosely‐textured plumage characteristic of many juvenile passerines reflects a trade‐off between investment in feather quality and rapid body growth that promotes early fledging. The structure of juvenile feathers was negatively correlated with duration of the nestling period among ten species of New World warblers (Parulidae), suggesting a trade‐off between investment in feathers and investment in rapid somatic development promoting fledging. Systematic studies of variation in the structure of body feathers will likely offer numerous other insights into avian biology.     

Variation in physiological health of diademed sifakas across intact and fragmented forest at Tsinjoarivo,eastern Madagascar

As undisturbed habitat becomes increasingly rare, managers charged with ensuring the survival of endangered primate species must increasingly utilize disturbed and degraded habitats in species survival plans. Yet we have an imperfect understanding of the true long‐term viability of primate populations in disturbed habitat, and census data can be misleading because density is not necessarily correlated with habitat quality and population viability in predictable ways. Here we present clinical laboratory data on hematology, serum biochemistry, fat‐soluble vitamins, minerals, iron analytes, viral serology, and parasitology of diademed sifaka (Propithecus diadema), derived from the capture of 26 individuals spanning eight groups and two habitats (undisturbed vs. disturbed and fragmented) at Tsinjoarivo, Madagascar. Blood from fragment individuals had significantly lower values for several factors: white blood cell counts, bilirubin, total protein, albumin, calcium, sodium, chloride, manganese, zinc, iron and total iron‐binding capacity. Several biochemical variables were higher in immature individuals, probably due to active growth. The large number of interhabitat differences suggests that habitat disturbance has an impact on physiological health within this population, perhaps reflecting dietary stress and/or immunosuppression. These results, combined with previous data showing altered diet, slower juvenile growth, and reduced activity in disturbed forest fragments, suggest that fragment sifakas may be less healthy than continuous forest groups. Finally, Tsinjoarivo sifakas have extremely low blood urea nitrogen (perhaps reflecting protein limitation) and selenium levels relative to other lemurs. Despite their survival and reproduction in the short term in fragments, these sifakas may represent a riskier conservation investment than conspecifics in undisturbed forest, and may be more susceptible to environmental stressors. However, more data on the fitness consequences of these biochemical differences are needed for a better interpretation of their impacts on long‐term viability prospects. Am. J. Primatol. Am. J. Primatol. 72:1013–1025, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Danian cold‐water corals from the Baunekule facies,Faxe Formation,Denmark: a rare taphonomic window of a coral mound flank habitat

Well‐preserved cold‐water corals are comparatively rare in the fossil record. This is partly due to the very low fossilization potential of the predominantly aragonitic corals but also due to the fact that coral ecosystems of deep water are a geologically young development. A Middle Danian cold‐water coral mound complex is well exposed in Faxe Quarry, Denmark. The coral mounds are intercalated with bryozoan mounds of various sizes and form the Faxe Formation. The coral limestone displays large variations in diagenesis, and this complicates the palaeoecological reconstructions. However, the Baunekule facies from the Faxe Formation contain a well‐preserved originally aragonitic and calcitic fauna. The aragonitic skeletons have been recrystallized to calcite during early diagenesis and the excellent preservation makes taxonomic identifications straightforward. A diverse fauna of ten scleractinian coral species, nine stylasterine coral species and seven octocoral species has been described from the Baunekule facies. The fossil fauna represents an ecological niche between the dead coral framework and coral rubble on a flank of a growing Dendrophyllia coral mound with multiple colonization events. The diversity and relative abundance of the fossil scleractinian corals are comparable to the modern settings in the NE Atlantic and Mediterranean. The distribution and diversity of the octocorals and the stylasterine corals are suggested to represent coral gardens as described from modern setting in the NE Pacific. The presence of a diverse and abundant stylasterine fauna suggests a stable palaeoenvironment, probably in a bathymetric depth range of 200–400 metre.     

No evidence for sex biases in milk macronutrients,energy, or breastfeeding frequency in a sample of filipino mothers

Maternal reproductive investment includes both the energetic costs of gestation and lactation. For most humans, the metabolic costs of lactation will exceed those of gestation. Mothers must balance reproductive investment in any single offspring against future reproductive potential. Among mammals broadly, mothers may differentially invest in offspring based on sex and maternal condition provided such differences investment influence future offspring reproductive success. For humans, there has been considerable debate if there are physiological differences in maternal investment by offspring sex. Two recent studies have suggested that milk composition differs by infant sex, with male infants receiving milk containing higher fat and energy; prior human studies have not reported sex‐based differences in milk composition. This study investigates offspring sex‐based differences in milk macronutrients, milk energy, and nursing frequency (per 24 h) in a sample of 103 Filipino mothers nursing infants less than 18 months of age. We found no differences in milk composition by infant sex. There were no significant differences in milk composition of mothers nursing first‐born versus later‐born sons or daughters or between high‐ and low‐income mothers nursing daughters or sons. Nursing frequency also showed no significant differences by offspring sex, sex by birth order, or sex by maternal economic status. In the Cebu sample, there is no support for sex‐based differences in reproductive investment during lactation as indexed by milk composition or nursing frequency. Further investigation in other populations is necessary to evaluate the potential for sex‐based differences in milk composition among humans. Am J Phys Anthropol 152:209–216, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Spider family composition and species richness patterns in two savannah habitats along the eastern coastal plain of Africa

The spider faunas of two savannah reserves along the eastern coastal plain of Africa are compared. Species richness was higher in the tropical area, with 493 species (54 families) from Mkomazi Game Reserve, Tanzania. Species richness was also high in the subtropics, with a total of 431 species (46 families) recorded from Ndumo Game Reserve, South Africa. Spider community structure was remarkably similar in the two reserves, with Salticidae, Gnaphosidae, Thomisidae, Theridiidae and Araneidae the most species‐rich families in both reserves. Eleven of the fourteen most species rich families were the same. A similar proportion of families were represented by singleton and doubleton species. A genus‐ and species‐level comparison of ten spider families indicates that while there is considerable overlap in the generic composition of the reserves (Sorensen’s Quotient of similarity: all >0.650 except Linyphiidae, 0.166; Corinnidae, 0.500) there is little overlap between the species occurring in the two sites (0.000–0.571), which was particularly evident in the more species‐rich families. A comparison of diversity of 57 families in each reserve with the spider biodiversity in the two sub‐regions suggests that local biodiversity is largely determined by regional biogeographical influences rather than local ecological factors.     

Assessing Extinction Risk in Small Metapopulations of Golden‐headed Lion Tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) in Bahia State,Brazil

Golden‐headed lion tamarins (GHLTs; Leontopithecus chrysomelas) are endangered primates endemic to the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, where loss of forest and its connectivity threaten species survival. Understanding the role of habitat availability and configuration on population declines is critical for guiding proactive conservation for this, and other, endangered species. We conducted population viability analysis to assess vulnerability of ten GHLT metapopulations to habitat loss and small population size. Seven metapopulations had a low risk of extirpation (or local extinction) over the next 100 years assuming no further forest loss, and even small populations could persist with immediate protection. Three metapopulations had a moderate/high risk of extirpation, suggesting extinction debt may be evident in parts of the species’ range. When deforestation was assumed to continue at current rates, extirpation risk significantly increased while abundance and genetic diversity decreased for all metapopulations. Extirpation risk was significantly negatively correlated with the size of the largest patch available to metapopulations, underscoring the importance of large habitat patches for species persistence. Finally, we conducted sensitivity analysis using logistic regression, and our results showed that local extinction risk was sensitive to percentage of females breeding, adult female mortality, and dispersal rate and survival; conservation or research programs that target these aspects of the species’ biology/ecology could have a disproportionately important impact on species survival. We stress that efforts to protect populations and tracts of habitat of sufficient size throughout the species’ distribution will be important in the near‐term to protect the species from continuing decline and extinction.     

Primate census and habitat evaluation in the Tana delta region, Kenya

Nineteen indigenous forest patches in the Tana River delta region, Kenya were surveyed between October and November 2000 for primates and habitat disturbance. Special emphasis was placed on the endangered Tana River red colobus (Procolobus rufomitratus Peters) and crested mangabeys (Cercocebus galeritus galeritus Peters), both of which are endemic to the region. Habitat disturbances evident in the forests included cutting of trees, harvesting of thatching material, firewood collection, dyke construction, cultivation, palm wine tapping and charcoal burning. A total of 85 groups of five primate species were counted. These comprised eighteen, ten, 22, 31 and four groups of red colobus, crested mangabey, baboons (Papio cynocephalus L.), sykes monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis Wolf) and vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops L.), respectively. A wider distribution of red colobus and crested mangabeys than was documented previously was noted, implying that they are probably more abundant than hitherto reported. It is hypothesized that extensive studies on some fauna considered endangered world‐wide would probably redefine their conservation status. Future studies in the lower Tana River region should cover the previously unsurveyed forests and focus on ways of curbing forest destruction.     

Changes in habitat selection patterns of the gray partridge Perdix perdix in relation to agricultural landscape dynamics over the past two decades

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Physiological dynamics,reproduction‐maintenance allocations,and life history evolution

Allocation of resources to competing processes of growth, maintenance, or reproduction is arguably a key process driving the physiology of life history trade‐offs and has been shown to affect immune defenses, the evolution of aging, and the evolutionary ecology of offspring quality. Here, we develop a framework to investigate the evolutionary consequences of physiological dynamics by developing theory linking reproductive cell dynamics and components of fitness associated with costly resource allocation decisions to broader life history consequences. We scale these reproductive cell allocation decisions to population‐level survival and fecundity using a life history approach and explore the effects of investment in reproduction or tissue‐specific repair (somatic or reproductive) on the force of selection, reproductive effort, and resource allocation decisions. At the cellular level, we show that investment in protecting reproductive cells increases fitness when reproductive cell maturation rate is high or reproductive cell death is high. At the population level, life history fitness measures show that cellular protection increases reproductive value by differential investment in somatic or reproductive cells and the optimal allocation of resources to reproduction is moulded by this level of investment. Our model provides a framework to understand the evolutionary consequences of physiological processes underlying trade‐offs and highlights the insights to be gained from considering fitness at multiple levels, from cell dynamics through to population growth.     

Feeding strategy of François' langur and white-headed langur at Fusui, China

We investigated the diet of a group of François' langur inhabiting a forest fragment between August 2002 and July 2003 to add to our knowledge of behavior and ecology of this langur. Our objective was to study whether the François' langur would adopt a feeding strategy similar to the white‐headed langur in the same nature reserve. Data indicated that a total of 37 plant species were eaten by François' langur; however, only ten species accounted for 90% of the total feeding time. Four species belong to the ten most dominant tree species within the vegetation quadrats. Ninety‐four percent of feeding time of François' langur was spent on leaves, whereas the remaining 6% of time was spent on fruits, flowers and twigs. Results also demonstrated that François' langur are similar to white‐headed langur in being predominantly folivorous and that Francois' langur adopted a similar strategy to white‐headed langur in diet, dietary variation and time spent on feeding. François' langur exhibited a habitat use preference for the middle zone of the forest, whereas the white‐headed langur utilized the bottom zone of the forest. Further analysis indicates that human interference and habitat fragmentation caused by agriculture also impact habitat use. Am. J. Primatol. 70:320–326, 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Female false black widow spiders,Steatoda grossa,recognize webs based on physical and chemical cues

Females of the false black widow, Steatoda grossa CL Koch (Araneae: Theridiidae), invest significant energy and time weaving cobwebs. We tested the hypothesis that S. grossa females select sites for their webs based, in part, on the presence of con‐ or heterospecific webs, sensing both physical and chemical web cues. In bioassays, we offered female S. grossa a choice between an empty control frame and a frame bearing the web of a conspecific female or that of a female common house spider, Parasteatoda tepidarium CL Koch (Araneae: Theridiidae), recording (1) the time she spent, and (2) the time she spent inactive (a proxy for settling behaviour) on each frame. We also tested the effect of (1) silk micro‐ and macrostructure (wrapped‐up silk or intact web, each semiochemical‐deprived), (2) plastic webs, and (3) silk semiochemical extract on the responses of S. grossa females. Females settled on both con‐ and heterospecific webs and chose test stimuli based on their chemical and physical characteristics. Even plastic webs in cobweb‐like arrangement readily prompted settling behaviour by females. Our results suggest that web architecture, rather than web silk, mediates settling responses by female S. grossa on pre‐existing webs which may provide structural support for a new web and indicate habitat suitability.