Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha in metabolic disease, inflammation, atherosclerosis and aging.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors which are activated by fatty acids and derivatives. The PPAR alpha form has been shown to mediate the action of the hypolipidemic drugs of the fibrate class on lipid and lipoprotein metabolism. PPAR alpha activators furthermore improve glucose homeostasis and influence body weight and energy homeostasis. It is likely that these actions of PPAR alpha activators on lipid, glucose and energy metabolism are, at least in part, due to the increase of hepatic fatty acid beta-oxidation resulting in an enhanced fatty acid flux and degradation in the liver. Moreover, PPARs are expressed in different immunological and vascular wall cell types where they exert anti-inflammatory and proapoptotic activities. The observation that these receptors are also expressed in atherosclerotic lesions suggests a role in atherogenesis. Finally, PPAR alpha activators correct age-related dysregulations in redox balance. Taken together, these data indicate a modulatory role for PPAR alpha in the pathogenesis of age-related disorders, such as dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and chronic inflammation, predisposing to atherosclerosis.     

过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体α的研究进展

过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体（Peroxisome proliferator activated receptors,PPARs）作为核受体超家族的一员,其作用广泛,可调节脂肪细胞因子表达、抑制炎症因子、改善胰岛素抵抗等。PPARs有三种亚型,分别是：PPARα、PPARβ／δ和PPARγ。其中PPARα是PPARs最主要的亚型,主要分布在肝脏中。PPARα由不饱和脂肪酸或贝特类降脂药物等配体活化后形成异二聚体,调控靶基因的表达,发挥生物学功能。PPARα参与调节肝脏脂质吸收、脂肪酸氧化、酮体生成、胆固醇代谢等脂代谢过程,以及糖代谢、炎症反应和细胞增殖等,与脂肪性肝病、肝脏炎症反应、乙肝病毒复制和肝癌等肝脏疾病密切相关。本文对PPARα的结构、作用机制、生物学功能及其与肝脏疾病的关系进行综述。PPARα作为肝脏疾病一个新的治疗靶点,阐明其与肝脏疾病发生机制之间的关系,有助于为肝脏疾病的治疗提供新的途径。     

Nutritional regulation and role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ in fatty acid catabolism in skeletal muscle

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear receptors primarily involved in lipid homeostasis. PPARδ displays strong expression in tissues with high lipid metabolism, such as adipose, intestine and muscle. Its role in skeletal muscle remains largely unknown. After a 24-h starvation period, PPARδ mRNA levels are dramatically up-regulated in gastrocnemius muscle of mice and restored to control level upon refeeding. The rise of PPARδ is accompanied by parallel up-regulations of fatty acid translocase/CD36 (FAT/CD36) and heart fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP), while refeeding promotes down-regulation of both genes. To directly access the role of PPARδ in muscle cells, we forced its expression and that of a dominant-negative PPARδ mutant in C2C12 myogenic cells. Differentiated C2C12 cells responds to 2-bromopalmitate or synthetic PPARδ agonist by induction of genes involved in lipid metabolism and increment of fatty acid oxidation. Overexpression of PPARδ enhanced these cellular responses, whereas expression of the dominant-negative mutant exerts opposite effects. These data strongly support a role for PPARδ in the regulation of fatty acid oxidation in skeletal muscle and in adaptive response of this tissue to lipid catabolism.     

PPAR基因与脂肪代谢调控

过氧化物酶体增值剂激活受体(PPARs)基因属于类固醇/甲状腺/维甲酸受体超家族,有3个亚型,即：PPAR-α、PPAR-β和PPAR-γ。PPARs具有多种生物学功能,如增强机体对胰岛素敏感性,调节体内糖平衡等,尤其在脂肪分化、生成等多方面起到重要作用,是目前的研究热点,文章从PPARs基因的结构,表达及功能等方面讨论了其与脂肪代谢调控的关系。     

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and skin development

PPARs are nuclear hormone receptors. PPAR subtypes (alpha, gamma, delta, the latter a xPPARbeta homologue) were initially investigated in skin because of their known role in regulating lipid metabolism. Studies adding specific PPAR ligand activators to cultured skin or skin cells are compatible with the concepts that PPARalpha activation mediates early lipogenic steps common to the function of both skin epidermal cells (keratinocytes) and sebaceous cells (sebocytes), PPARgamma activation plays a unique role in stimulating sebocyte lipogenesis, and PPARdelta activation may contribute to lipid biosynthesis in both sebocytes and keratinocytes under certain circumstances. Epidermal keratinocytes appear to express small amounts of PPARalpha and PPARdelta mRNA and a trace of PPARgamma mRNA which is up-regulated with differentiation. Sebocytes express all subtypes; PPARgamma gene expression excedes that in epidermis. The emerging data on PPAR protein expression suggests that epidermis normally expresses predominantly PPARalpha, while sebocytes express more PPARgamma than PPARalpha. These expression patterns may change during hyperplasia, differentiation and inflammation. Gene disruption studies in mice are compatible with a contribution of PPARalpha to skin barrier function, suggest that PPARgamma is necessary for sebocyte differentiation, and indicate that PPARdelta can ameliorate inflammatory responses in skin. PPARs appear to play a role in keratinocyte synthesis of the lipids that they export to the intercellular space to form the skin permeability barrier. They also appear to be important for sebocyte formation of the intracellular fused lipid droplets that constitute the holocrine secretion of the sebaceous gland. In addition, they may play roles in keratinocyte growth and differentiation and the inhibition of skin inflammation by diverse mechanisms not necessarily related to fat metabolism.     

PPAR家族及其与代谢综合征的关系

过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体(peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors,PPARs)是配体激活的转录因子核受体超家族成员之一。目前已知有三种亚型：PPARα、-β／δ和-γ。它们在脂肪生成、脂质代谢、胰岛素敏感性、炎症和血压调节中起着关键作用,因而近年来倍受关注。越来越多的研究表明,PPARs与代谢综合征,包括胰岛素抵抗、糖耐量受损、2型糖尿病、肥胖、高脂血症、高血压病、动脉粥样硬化和蛋白尿之间存在因果关系。重要的是,PPARα的激动剂如贝丁酸类降脂药(Fibrate)和PPARγ的激动剂如噻唑烷二酮(Thiazolidinedione,TZD)均已被证实有改善代谢综合征的作用。此外,三种PPAR亚型在2型糖尿病及糖尿病肾病的发展中均有重要作用。不断增加的证据提示,PPARs有可能成为代谢综合征及其相关并发症的潜在治疗靶点。本文将就PPARs的生物学活性、配体选择性和生理学功能作一综述,并对其在代谢综合征发病机制中的作用和PPAR配体对2型糖尿病的治疗效用进行重点讨论。     

PPAR(alpha) and PPAR(gamma) activators suppress the monocyte-macrophage apoB-48 receptor

Certain triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRLs), specifically chylomicrons, dyslipemic VLDLs, and their remnants, are atherogenic and can induce monocyte-macrophage foam cell formation in vitro via the apolipoprotein B-48 receptor (apoB-48R). Human atherosclerotic lesion foam cells express the apoB-48R, as determined immunohistochemically, suggesting it can play a role in the conversion of macrophages into foam cells in vivo. The regulation of the apoB-48R in monocyte-macrophages is not fully understood, albeit previous studies indicated that cellular sterol levels and state of differentiation do not affect apoB-48R expression. Since peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) regulate some aspects of cellular lipid metabolism and may be protective in atherogenesis by up-regulation of liver X-activated receptor alpha and ATP-binding cassette transporter A1, we examined the regulation of apoB-48R by PPAR ligands in human monocyte-macrophages. Using real-time PCR, Northern, Western, and functional cellular lipid accumulation assays, we show that PPARalpha and PPARgamma activators significantly suppress the expression of apoB-48R mRNA in human THP-1 and blood-borne monocyte-macrophages. Moreover, PPAR activators inhibit the expression of the apoB-48R protein and, notably, the apoB-48R-mediated lipid accumulation of TRL by THP-1 monocytes in vitro. If PPAR activators also suppress the apoB-48R pathway in vivo, diminished apoB-48R-mediated monocyte-macrophage lipid accumulation may be yet another antiatherogenic effect of the action of PPAR ligands.