Seasonal changes in testicular size, plasma testosterone concentration and body weight in captive flying foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus and P. scapulatus)

Adult male flying foxes Pteropus poliocephalus and P. scapulatus were captured in south-east Queensland and kept in outdoor enclosures. Testicular size (TS), plasma testosterone concentrations (PTC) and body weight (BW) were measured over 1-year periods. Testicular recrudescence in P. poliocephalus began before the summer solstice and TS was greatest during mid-March (autumn) and lowest from July to September. Large increases in PTC were observed in all individuals approximately 1 month after the peak in TS. BW also increased around the time of the mating season, changes being correlated significantly with changes in TS. Mating occurred between April and June, and births from late October to late November. In P. scapulatus, TS was greatest in the spring (October) and least in the autumn (February to May); PTC fluctuated throughout the year in this species but, unlike P. poliocephalus, did not show a single large increase in the mating season. BW showed a similar seasonal pattern to that seen in P. poliocephalus, being greatest at the time of greatest TS. Mating occurred in October to November, and births in autumn. In captivity, in outdoor enclosures, these species maintained the seasonal reproductive patterns observed in the wild. The 2 species respond differently to the same environmental cues in terms of regulation of the timing of their breeding seasons.     

WINTER FEEDING ECOLOGY OF WIGEON ANAS PENELOPE AT THE OUSE WASHES, ENGLAND

Investigations on the feeding ecology of Wigeon were carried out in winter 1978–79 at the species' most important inland wintering habitat in Britain. The study area included 287 ha of grassland, about one-sixth of the Washes, which is grazed by cattle and sheep until late autumn. In winter the area is partly or fully flooded. The number of Wigeon increased to 11 200 in January but cold weather in February, with snow and frozen flood water, forced the birds to leave, only 600 staying in the reserve. In March up to 4000 birds were again present. The distribution of the population within the refuge depends on whether the habitat is dry pasture with only a few ponds, partly flooded, fully flooded or covered with snow and frozen flood water. Under dry or slightly wet conditions 98% of the Wigeon were grazing (October to January), while under partly flooded conditions (February and March) 42%, fed on water. With increasing water depth, upending was used by 13%, while 45% of the population moved to the barrier banks, grazing there in March. The feeding method can change within a few hours with increasing water depth. The diurnal activity pattern varies during the wintering period. A lower percentage of morning feeding occurred after flights back from feeding outside the refuge and under frozen conditions. The feeding activity was higher at mid-day with a slight decrease towards dusk. The average diurnal feeding activity was 71% (October to April), with a maximum of 90% in November. Wigeon feed diurnally and nocturnally. During a 24 h period in March they were foraging for 15 h 40 min; by day 81% of the time was spent feeding, while at night only 48%. Standing crop measurements showed that the biomass of green vegetation declined significantly outside enclosures due to Wigeon usage. Pasture land should be grazed at different intensities by cattle and sheep before the arrival of the ducks. Inland reserves should include such pasture together with some standing water where the birds are undisturbed. The use of inland pastures can compensate for the loss of coastal habitats.     

武汉南湖水体及沉积物不同形态磷的季节变化

在武汉南湖5个采样点分别采集了湖水和柱状沉积物样品,对水体、沉积物及其间隙水中磷的季节变化以及沉积物中的不同形态磷进行了研究.结果表明: 水体总磷（TP）和正磷酸盐磷（PO₄^3--P）的平均含量分别为0.240和0.033 mg·L^-1.TP和PO₄^3--P均在11月含量最高,但TP含量的最低值出现在2月,PO₄^3--P含量的最低值出现在8月.沉积物中TP的平均含量为1.005 mg·g^-1, 4—11月呈上升趋势,11月至次年2月趋于稳定;其垂直分布上随沉积深度增加逐渐降低.其间隙水PO₄^3--P的平均含量为0.209 mg·L^-1,11月最高,2月最低,其垂直分布规律与沉积物TP一致.沉积物中的不同形态磷以无机磷为主,占TP的61.4%～77.1%.沉积物中活性磷（BA-P）的含量很高,但BA-P随沉积深度增加显著降低.相关性分析表明,沉积物主要通过BA-P和自生钙磷（ACa-P）的释放向水体供给磷.     

Seasonal changes in C, N and major organic compounds and their significance to morpho-functional processes in the endemic Antarctic brown alga Ascoseira mirabilis

The seasonal and intra-thallus variations in the contents of C, N, proteins and amino acids, as well as in the storage carbohydrates mannitol and laminaran, were measured in the endemic Antarctic brown alga Ascoseira mirabilis between September and February and related to seasonal changes in dark respiration and photosynthesis. Carbon contents between 31 and 37% DW were relatively constant throughout these months and no variations were detected among thallus regions. Nitrogen contents, by contrast, were higher in September/October (3.1% DW) and decreased in January and February (1.8% DW). In general, the basal regions had the lower N contents. Proteins reached maximum values of 13% DW in November and February and were inversely correlated to photosynthesis (net P_max). The amino acid content was also higher in October and November (maxima close to 10% DW), but low between December and February (close to 5% DW), probably related to a seasonal pattern of N allocation in the alga. The storage carbohydrates mannitol and laminaran exhibited inverse seasonal changes: low mannitol values close to 5% DW in September were coupled with high laminaran contents varying between 7 and 15% DW. The existence of high laminaran contents in the distal blade region during September and February suggests that this compound was effectively accumulated in this region. The low P/R ratios in spring and the existence of a significant relationship between mannitol content and seasonal photosynthetic activity in the basal region appear to support the hypothesis of a possible utilization of carbohydrates to power growth in A. mirabilis. Received: 7 November 1996 / Accepted: 28 August 1997     

Seasonal Changes in Auxin Effect on Rooting of Douglas-Fir Stem Cuttings as Related to Bud Activity

The relation of seasonal bud activity to the periodicity of rooting in Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco, stem cuttings was studied in combination with auxin and cold storage treatments. Cuttings were collected in all months except April and May, for 3 years. Rooting was least in September and October when bud dormancy was most pronounced, greatest in December and January if exogenous auxin was applied, or in February and March if no auxin was used. The buds contributed significantly to rooting from January to April, and were responsible for differences in rooting of terminal and lateral cuttings during this period. Auxin did not enhance rooting in September and October, but at other times it replaced or supplemented the role of vegetative buds in promoting rooting. Auxin also removed the differences in rooting between lateral and terminal cuttings. Cold treatment in October and November removed bud dormancy and enhanced rooting. After November the need for auxin or cold treatment diminished and rooting without either treatment reached a maximum in February and March. Auxin did not change the seasonal pattern of rooting but broadened and enhanced the rooting response in favor of earliness. These results are discussed in relation to the effect of bud activity on auxin response and root initiation. The hypotheses are proposed that cambial dormancy or auxin deficiency is not the limiting factor during bud dormancy, and that cold treatments have the effect of bringing inhibitors and promoters into proper balance for optimum rooting response.     

Seasonal changes of semen quality and freezability in Franches-Montagnes stallions

The objective of this study was to investigate seasonal changes of semen quality parameters in Franches-Montagnes stallions and to compare the freezability of ejaculates collected in autumn and winter. Experiments were performed using 15 stallions from the National Stud Farm in Avenches (Switzerland). Ejaculates were collected and evaluated every month during 1 year as well as cryopreserved in autumn and winter (September to February). In fresh semen the gel-free volume, concentration, motility and morphology (normal sperm, major defects, vacuoles and acrosome defects) were evaluated and in frozen-thawed semen the motility as well as the viability (SYBR-14/PI) were performed. To analyse seasonal differences four periods of 3 months each were defined as autumn (September, October, November), winter (December, January, February), spring (March, April, May) and summer (June, July, August). During the 1-year experiment all fresh semen quality parameters demonstrated a clear seasonal and individual pattern. The gel-free volume was significantly (P<0.05) higher in spring and summer compared to autumn and winter while sperm concentration was significantly (P<0.05) lower in spring than at any other time of the year. Total sperm number was significantly (P<0.05) higher and sperm motility significantly (P<0.05) lower in summer than in other seasons. Regarding sperm morphology, normal sperm was significantly (P<0.05) higher in autumn than in winter and summer and major defects were lowest (P<0.05) in autumn. In frozen-thawed semen motility was significantly (P<0.05) improved in the ejaculates collected in autumn compared to winter, while viability showed no obvious differences. Our results clearly demonstrate that individual and seasonal differences occurred in semen quality of Franches-Montagnes stallions. Ejaculates collected in autumn (September, October, November) demonstrated good quality, especially regarding sperm morphology, and were more suitable for cryopreservation because of better motility in frozen-thawed semen collected during autumn than in winter.     

A pollen calendar for Chittagong University Campus,Chittagong (Bangladesh)

Summary This work presents a calendar of pollen types found in the atmosphere of Chittagong University Campus, Chittagong, Bangladesh, recorded over the period of March 1988–February 1990. A total of 9,225 pollen/cm² was encountered and classified in 36 pollen types belonging to 26 families. The pollen concentration showed three peak periods, March, October and November and each period was dominated by a specific pollen type. Low frequency of pollen was probably due to heavy rainfall which washed down the pollen. January and February were also marked by lower abundance of pollen and was probably due to the low rate of flowering. This study clearly showed four airborne pollen seasons from October to November, December to February, March to April and June to September. The dominant pollen types were Poaceae, followed by Amaranthaceae, Arecaceae, Asteraceae and Cyperaceae. The pollen calendar was provided to show the range of flowering with the period of occurrence in air of the area studied.     

The relationship between body condition and the timing of implantation in pregnant Grey seals (Halichoerus grypus)

Adult female Grey seals were sampled from the Farne Islands, Northumbria at monthly intervals during 1980 and 1981. The mean date of implantation was 7 April and most females implanted between 11 March and 5 May. Sculp, core and total body weights declined most at the time of lactation in November and were lowest during February. These weights increased most rapidly during March and April; at the same time as implantation occurred. The pectoral blubber depth followed a similar pattern. Females in which the spring increase in body condition occurred earliest also had the earliest implantation. The study demonstrates a correlation between body condition and the time of implantation.     

Diel and seasonal locomotor activity patterns in Arctic charr, Salvelinm alpinus (L.)

One-year-old Arctic charr, Sulvelinus alpinus (L.), of the Hornavan strain were tested from February 1985 to January 1986 in an attempt to get an increased understanding of the annual rheotactic behaviour as well as the die1 and seasonal locomotor activity pattern. An annular stream tank equipped with photocells was used to measure the direction of swimming movements as well as the number of passings. From February to late May the locomotor activity was low but increased in July and peaked in September. After November the locomotor activity was again at low winter levels. During the activity peak from July to November the majority ofall movements was directed against the current while no preference for direction was noted during the rest of the year. The high level of swimming movements directed against the current in late summer and autumn may be related to an innate habitat change. From February until June, the charr exhibited a bimodal diurnal activity pattern. In July activity was evenly spread over the whole 24- hour period and in August and September activity was again mainly diurnal with a bimodal pattern. In October and November the activity was mainly nocturnal and in December and January activity was concentrated in the short light period. Both annual and die1 activity are discussed in relation to earlier findings in general locomotor activity in Arctic charr and other salmonids.     

Effects of sand burial depth on seed germination and seedling emergence of Cirsium pitcheri

A greenhouse study was conducted to determine the effects of sand burial on seed germination and seedling emergence of Cirsium pitcheri, a threatened species along Lake Huron sand dunes. In October 1996, seeds of C. pitcheri were sorted into three groups (small, medium and large) and artificially buried at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 cm depths in plastic pots filled with unsterilized sand from Lake Huron sand dunes. These pots were placed outside in sand boxes for natural stratification. In early February, the pots were brought into the greenhouse for germination of seeds. Data showed that percent seed germination and emergence of seedlings were not related to seed size. However, both variables were negatively correlated with depth. Seedling emergence occurred from a maximum depth of 6 cm with most seedlings emerging from 2 cm depth. Only one seedling emerged from 8 cm depth. Seedlings from large seeds produced longer roots than those of small seeds. Larger root system would probably enhance seedling establishment.     

Community phenological patterns of a lowland tropical rainforest in north-eastern Australia

Leaf-fall, leaf-flush (newly expanded leaves), flowering and fruiting were recorded monthly between April 1982 and May 1985 in 703 individuals of 99 species of trees, shrubs and herbs in a logged lowland, complex rainforest. Weekly water availability and demand were modelled using pan evaporation, rainfall, and a range of estimated maximum soil water storage. The water balance model indicated that rainfall distribution was an inadequate measure of the seasonal availability of water for growth and reproduction. Intermittent shortages in available water were predicted between October and February, well into what is the wettest season of the year in terms of long-term rainfall averages. Adequate water was available in soil water stores through most of the August–October ‘dry season’. Leaf-fall, flowering, and fruiting all followed distinct seasonal patterns although appreciable levels of activity occurred in all months. Community leaf-fall increased rapidly following an annual low in the very wet, February–May period, to a peak in August. The rapid increase in leaf-fall activity was accompanied by pronounced depressions in flowering and leaf-flushing and coincided with the period of minimum temperatures and insolation. There was no evidence to suggest that this leaf-fall peak was accompanied or induced by drought. This ‘winter’ was followed by rising temperatures and insolation at a time when adequate soil water was usually available, and flowering activity (number of species, number of individuals, and total abundance) increased rapidly in August and peaked from September to October. The flowering peak was accompanied by a major leaf-flush. Leaf-flushing continued intermittently from October to February, a period characterized by maximum temperature, maximum insolation, and periods of predicted water stress when soil water stores were depleted during short, rainless periods. A second peak in leaf-flushing coincided with the wet in March-April. This was accompanied by a relatively small increase in leaf-fall activity. Fruiting showed a bimodal peak from October to April each year. Prediction of functional relationships between climate and species and individual behaviour from community phenological patterns was considered to be inappropriate.     

Limnological observations of an intermittent tropical dry forest stream

This study examines aspects of the seasonal limnology of an intermittent stream in the dry forest region of northwest Costa Rica. It focuses on annual water level fluctuations and both seasonal and among pool variation in dissolved oxygen concentration and water temperature. Dry season pools differed in morphometry and the rate of decline in water levels subsequent to the seasonal floods. Rate of water level decline was related both to pool depth and to the exposure of the pool to the sun. Oxygen concentration was generally low in the dry season, but increased during the rainy season in association with rain events and seasonal flooding. A repeated-measures analysis of variance indicated that seasonal effects accounted for 40% of the variance in oxygen concentration for residual pools. Differences among pools were also significant. However, there was strong evidence for a significant interaction between seasonal and spatial influences on oxygen values in the system. Variation in water temperature was small, but differences among pools, sampling dates, and their interaction were all significant. Periphyton production increased significantly between the late wet season sample in November and the dry season sample in February. Incident light intensity explained 76% of the variation among pools in net periphyton production in the dry season.     

Evidence for an annual reproductive rhythm independent of food availability in male Creole goats in subtropical northern Mexico

The aim of this study was to determine if there is a seasonal pattern of sexual activity dependent on food availability in male Creole goats in subtropical Mexico. The study was conducted in the Laguna Region in the State of Coahuila, Mexico (26 degrees N). Male Creole goats (n = 8) were kept in a shed, fed alfalfa ad libitum and given 200 g of concentrate daily throughout the study. Live weight and testicular weight were determined every 2 wk. Sexual behavior and sperm production were determined monthly. Blood samples were obtained weekly to determine testosterone plasma concentrations. All variables were subjected to sinusoidal modeling procedures and showed important seasonal variations (P < 0.0001) with different phase angles for body weight, testicular weight and testosterone plasma concentrations. The nadir of live weight occurred in November and the peak in May. The lowest testicular weight (90 g) and testosterone plasma concentrations (0.1 ng/mL) were observed in January and February, respectively, while the peaks were observed in July and August (145 g and 10 ng/mL, respectively). Ejaculation latency also varied during the study, being low between May and November (96 sec) and reaching a peak in April (183 sec). Minimum number of spermatozoa per ejaculate occurred between February and April (1.4 x 10(9) cells/ejaculate) while the maximum number was observed between May and September (2.8 x 10(9) spermatozoa/ejaculate). Progressive sperm motility was low between January and April (3.04 on average) and high between May and November (about 3.55 on average). The percentage of live spermatozoa diminished between January and April (68% in April) and then increased to values around 80% between May and November. These results lead us to conclude that male Creole goats in Northern Mexico, fed constantly throughout the year, exhibit seasonality in their reproductive activity. Intense sexual activity occurred between May and December.     

Seasonal variation in plankton, submicrometre particles and size-fractionated dissolved organic carbon in Antarctic coastal waters

Concentrations of plankton, suspended particles 0.74–87 μm equivalent spherical diameter and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were measured from May to February at an Antarctic coastal site. Bacteria-sized particles 0.74–1 μm diameter, and bacterial cells and heterotrophic protists all exhibited a seasonal minimum during winter and maxima in summer. Bacteria composed <10% of the bacteria-sized particles. Release of autotrophic protists from the ice caused water column biomass of autotrophs to reach maximum concentrations in October and November, but maximum cell concentration in the water column was reached in January. Microheterotroph biomass weakly reflected the release of the ice algal community but reached maximum concentration during the water column bloom in January. Total DOC concentrations varied from 0.36 mg C l⁻¹ in July to 3.10 mg C l⁻¹ in October, with a yearly average of 1.51 mg C l⁻¹. Ultrafiltration of DOC revealed that the molecular weight composition of the DOC differed greatly through the year. DOC <5 kDa molecular weight reached a maximum of 1.25 mg C l⁻¹ in October and accounted for up to 60% of total DOC in July. Concentrations of high molecular weight DOC (>100 kDa) were highest in July and November, with the DOC (100 kDa–0.5 μm) fraction reaching a maximum of 1.22 mg C l⁻¹ in November and composing 82% of the total DOC in January. Wet chemical oxidation and high-temperature catalytic oxidation organic carbon analyses were compared. Good correlation was observed between methods during summer but no significant correlation existed in winter, indicating that winter DOC may be refractory. Accepted: 21 March 2000     

黄土丘陵沟壑区农林草地土壤热量状况及植被生长响应——以燕沟流域为例

利用CoupModel模型模拟了黄土丘陵沟壑区燕沟流域刺槐(Robinia pseudoacacia)林地、辽东栎(Quercus liaotungensis)林地、荒草地、农地等7种土地类型的土壤热量状况,分析了不同植被类型的潜热通量、感热通量、土壤热通量以及植被生长对土壤热量的响应.结果表明,农地潜热通量较小,林地和荒草地潜热通量较大,各地类潜热通量季节变化规律基本一致.潜热通量是黄土丘陵区土壤-植被-大气系统能量的主要支出项,占总净辐射的72.1%～81.4%以上;感热通量变化振幅相对较小,占总净辐射的16.4%～26.4%;土壤热通量仅占总净辐射的1.4%～2.4%,但直接影响土壤温度的变化速度和变化时间.试验地各地类地表温度随季节的变化趋势均呈单峰曲线型.2～7月份0～20cm平均土壤温度随累积土壤热通量的增大而升高,9月到翌年1月份0～20cm平均土壤温度随累积土壤热通量的减小而降低,但累积土壤热通量的变化滞后于土壤温度变化.同一植被类型条件下,阳坡土壤温度年变幅显著高于阴坡.在阴坡,0cm、10cm、20cm深土壤温度年变幅农地＞阴坡荒草地＞阴坡辽东栎林地＞阴坡刺槐林地;在阳坡,阳坡荒草地＞阳坡刺槐林地＞阳坡辽东栎林地.阴坡刺槐林地、阴坡荒草地和农地0～20cm土壤温度达到5℃以上的时间比阳坡刺槐林和阳坡荒草地推迟1周左右,根系开始生长活动的时间也推迟1周左右;而阴坡辽东栎林地则晚于阳坡辽东栎林地5d左右,根系开始生长活动的时间也较阳坡辽东栎林晚5d左右.出叶时间阳坡刺槐林和阳坡荒草地植物比阴坡刺槐林、阴坡荒草地和阳坡辽东栎林的早1周左右,比阴坡辽东栎林早12d左右.     

Diapause development in frozen larvae of the goldenrod gall fly, Eurosta solidaginis fitch (diptera: tephritidae)

Seasonal changes in metabolic rate and the potential for morphological development demonstrated that third-instar larvae of the goldenrod gall fly, Eurosta solidaginis Fitch, exhibit a distinct winter diapause. Metabolic rate (CO2 production) was significantly lower from 15 October to 9 February than in early autumn (9 September) and spring (1 March) samples. The induction of diapause coincided with the development of cold-hardening, maximum larval mass, and gall senescence, but our experiments did not identify specific cues triggering diapause induction. We examined the influence of exposure to 0 degrees C and -20 degrees C on diapause development. Diapause development in larvae stored at 0 degrees C occurred at approximately the same rate as in nature. Until 15 December the larvae were in the refractory phase of diapause (incapable of morphological development, even at permissive temperatures), but afterward moved to the activated phase within which diapause intensity decreased until termination in February. Diapause development occurred in larvae collected during the winter and stored at -20 degrees C for periods of 1 week to 3 months. Diapause intensity decreased in frozen larvae through the winter but at a slower rate than in larvae stored at 0 degrees C.     

Marine cladocerans in Toyama Bay, southern Japan Sea: seasonal occurrence and day-night vertical distributions

Marine cladocerans in the zooplankton samples collected vertically(0–500 m) with Norpac nets at 2–4 week intervalsfrom February 1990 through January 1991 at a station in ToyamaBay, southern Japan Sea, were examined. From mid-March throughearly December, cladoceran populations exhibited five distinctpeaks. in which seven species occurred and showed a species-specific pattern of seasonal distribution. In mid-July. Peniliaavirostris exhibited a prominent peak in population density.Three species of Evadne, E.nordmanni, E.spinifera and E.tergestina,showed a clear ecological separation in time. The first twospecies had a peak density in April and July. respectively,but the last species demonstrated three distinct peaks betweenJune and September. Two congeneric species of the genus Podon,P.leuckarti and P.schmackeri, also did not co-exist in time.Simultaneous horizontal hauls with MTD nets made in June andSeptember 1986 revealed a strikingly marked surface distributionof all species. Evadne nordmanni occurred in June and demonstrateda clear ‘reverse’ did vertical migration, residingin the 30 m depth during the night time and ascending up tothe uppermost water column of 0–10 m during the daytime.Among the four species which occurred in September, E.spinifera,E.tergestina and P.schmackeri also showed a reverse migrationbetween the 30 m depth during the night and the very surfaceduring the day. A different pattern was observed in P.avirostrzs,which was distributed at a depth of 30 m during both the dayand the night with no sign of diel vertical migration. Amongthe more prevalent parthenogenetic individuals, some gamogeneticforms were found to exist in most species occurring in ToyamaBay.     

Dive types and circadian behaviour patterns of Saimaa ringed seals<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phoca hispida saimensis</Emphasis> during the open-water season

Diving and circadian behaviour patterns of 7 free-ranging Saimaa ringed sealsPhoca hispida saimensis Nordquist, 1899 were examined by VHF-radiotelemetry during open-water seasons between May and November in Lake Saimaa, eastern Finland. The mean recorded dive duration ranged from 2.8 to 6.5 min, with a maximum of 21 min. The mean dive depth ranged from 9.8 to 15.7 m, with maximum of 39.6 m. The maximum dive depth of each seal was limited by water depth in the study area. The dive depths were positively correlated with dive duration and body mass of the seal. Five different dive types were defined, as based on their depth-time characteristics, each falling into one of the three functional categories: travelling, feeding, and resting. Long duration diving bouts occurred mostly at night and were presumed to be resting dives. Saimaa ringed seals exhibited a circadian pattern of haul-out behaviour that shifted seasonally. During molting (May–June) the seals hauled-out both day and night, but later in summer haul-out was more frequent at night.     

Seasonal variation of fatty acid content in natural microplankton from the Tumpat coastal waters of the South China Sea

In the search for better understanding on the nutritional quality of natural tropical plankton, samples were collected from shallow coastal waters facing the South China Sea during the dry monsoon (May-September) and the wet monsoon (November-April) seasons from March 1993 to July 1994. The total fatty acid content of the predominantly phytoplankton communities (25-200 microns sieve nets) varied four to fivefold with the lowest value occurring during the dry monsoon when blue-green became predominant. Saturated fatty acid content (SAFA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and total omega 3 (sigma omega 3) showed the same seasonal pattern as the total fatty acid with high values in October to December 1993. When species of the dinoflagellate Peridinium and Ceratium were present in considerable amount, the docosahexaenoic acid DHA content was high, especially from March to May 1993. The maximum content of eicosapentaenoic acid EPA, total omega-3 fatty acid, PUFA and sigma omega 3 in phytoplankton occurred during the pre-monsoon period (October and November 1993) when the diatoms were present in large amounts. The larger fraction sample (> 200 microns sieve nets) which consisted predominantly of zooplankton had high amounts of PUFA from September to November 1993.     

REPRODUCTIVE PERIODICITY OF THE SEA URCHIN,TRIPNEUSTES GRATILLA (L.) IN TAIWAN COMPARED WITH OTHER REGIONS

An annual reproductive periodicity of Tripneustes gratilla in northern Taiwan is revealed by both the gonad development stages and the gonad index. The gonads of T. gratilla recovered from spawning in February—March, propagated gametocytes in April—June, came to prematurity in July—August, and matured in September—November. Spawning occurred in October—December. The breeding pattern of T. gratilla over a broad geographical area appears to be related to seasonal changes of sea temperatures.