蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132诱导K562和HeLa细胞凋亡程度存在明显差异

蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132诱导人白血病细胞K562和宫颈癌细胞HeLa凋亡,用3个不同浓度的蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132处理人白血病细胞K562和宫颈癌细胞HeLa,通过MTT检测、annexin Ⅴ/ PI 双染法、流式细胞术、酶标仪和Western 印迹分别检测MG132对K562细胞和HeLa细胞的生长效应、细胞凋亡率、细胞内活性氧(ROS)水平和caspase-3活性变化的影响.蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132诱导K562细胞凋亡明显,对HeLa细胞诱导凋亡不明显.结果表明,蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132特异性诱导不同肿瘤细胞凋亡的程度存在明显差异.     

蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132的浓度对人白血病细胞K562凋亡的影响

探讨蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132 在诱导人白血病K562细胞凋亡过程中作用.分别以不同浓度的蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132 处理人白血病细胞K562,通过MTT法检测K562细胞活力,应用Annexin Ⅴ和PI 双染的细胞流式法检测K562细胞凋亡率和细胞内活性氧(ROS) 水平,应用酶标仪法检测K562细胞内Caspase- 3活性变化的情况.结果表明,随着MG132浓度的增加,各个指标与对照组比较差异均有显著性(P<0.05):K562细胞增殖明显受到抑制;细胞凋亡率明显增加,且当MG132浓度为900 nmol/L时,细胞凋亡率达36.5 %;同时,ROS 水平和caspase- 3活性明显升高.因次,蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132可显著抑制人白血病细胞K562增殖并促进其凋亡.     

MG132抑制肝癌细胞Bel-7404生长的机制研究

MG132(Z-Leu-leu-leu-CHO) 是一种蛋白酶体抑制剂,它可逆地抑制蛋白酶体活性,从而抑制泛素-蛋白酶体通路所介导的蛋白质降解,诱导细胞凋亡．实验研究MG132抑制肝癌细胞Bel-7404生长的机制．采用不同浓度梯度和时间梯度,通过荧光显微镜、透射电子显微镜、Hoechst33342染色、MTT检测、AnnexinⅤ/PI流式细胞术、Western blot分别检测MG132 对Bel-7404细胞的形态学变化、细胞内质网压力变化、自噬泡形成、凋亡小体形成、细胞存活率、细胞凋亡水平、凋亡及自噬信号途径中相关蛋白质表达的影响．结果显示,MG132能明显抑制Bel-7404细胞生长．通过增加内质网压力激活Caspase-12,也可通过线粒体途径调节Bcl-2/Bax水平,促进细胞色素c的释放,两者皆可激活下游效应Caspase-3,剪切PARP,诱导细胞凋亡．同时,MG132可诱导Beclin 1 和LC3B的上调,促使Bel-7404细胞发生自噬,可在透射电镜下观察到自噬泡形成．上述结果表明,MG132作用Bel-7404细胞涉及两类细胞程序性死亡途径：细胞凋亡和自噬．     

TGFβ信号调控阿霉素诱导的衰老肿瘤细胞表达SA-β-gal

目的:细胞衰老是维持机体稳态的一种重要机制,表达SA-β-gal被认为是衰老细胞的一种特异性的标志,但有研究表明在衰老细胞中SA-β-gal染色阳性只是衰老细胞的溶酶体变大的结果,为了探究SA-β-gal的表达与细胞衰老之间的具体关系,我们验证了参与调节衰老细胞表达SA-β-gal的信号通路及SA-β-gal的表达情况是否会对细胞衰老的过程产生影响.方法:肿瘤细胞用低剂量的阿霉素处理24小时后,再分别给予不同的小分子抑制剂继续作用4天,观察SA-β-gal染色阳性的细胞数目及SA-β-gal表达与否对于衰老细胞在分泌细胞因子、生长阻滞等细胞生物学功能上的影响.结果:在阿霉素诱导细胞发生衰老的过程中,TGFβ抑制剂SB431542能够抑制衰老细胞表达SA-β-gal,而SA-β-gal表达的缺失并不影响细胞衰老的其他特征性改变.结论:低剂量的阿霉素作用肿瘤细胞后,细胞会进入衰老的状态.在细胞衰老的过程中,TGFβ受体Ⅰ的抑制剂SB431542可以抑制衰老细胞表达SA-β-gal,但是SA-β-gal的缺失表达并不影响细胞衰老的过程及衰老细胞的其他特性,如:不可逆的生长阻滞、分泌有活性的细胞因子等.结果表明:SA-β-gal并不能作为衰老细胞的特异性标志.     

蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132对青扦花粉萌发和花粉管生长的影响

泛素/蛋白酶体系统(UPP)是真核细胞内蛋白质选择性降解的主要途径,而蛋白酶体是UPP中蛋白质降解的场所。本文应用细胞学、统计学方法以及FTIR技术研究了蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132对青扦(Peceawilsonii)花粉萌发、花粉管生长的影响。结果表明:MG132显著抑制青扦花粉萌发和花粉管生长,并导致花粉管形态异常,主要表现为花粉管亚顶端出现液泡化,并且液泡随着培养时间的延长而扩大到整个花粉管,花粉管濒临死亡;而DMSO以及非蛋白酶体抑制剂E-64不产生类似结果;半薄切片结果表明,MG132处理后不仅花粉管细胞质发生液泡化,生殖细胞也发生液泡化;FTIR分析进一步表明,MG132处理后,花粉管顶端的细胞壁蛋白和果胶质含量大幅度下降。上述结果表明:MG132通过抑制蛋白酶体活性显著影响青扦花粉萌发及花粉管生长;UPP在青扦花粉萌发、花粉管极性生长模式的建立和维持过程中起重要作用;抑制蛋白酶体活性将导致青扦花粉管的程序性死亡。     

蛋白酶体活性缺失对拟南芥根发育影响的显微和超微结构观察

以拟南芥根为材料,运用光学和透射电子显微镜分析了蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132对拟南芥根尖伸长区细胞的显微及超微结构的影响。结果发现:(1)微分干涉显微镜观察结果表明,MG132处理将导致拟南芥根部伸长区细胞的细胞质液泡化,并且抑制剂浓度越高细胞质液泡化越明显。(2)半薄切片结合考马斯亮蓝染色结果表明,MG132诱导的液泡中富含蛋白质。(3)免疫荧光标记结合共聚焦显微镜观察结果表明,液泡中的蛋白质主要为泛素缀合蛋白,暗示泛素化蛋白质的积累诱导细胞质自体吞噬的发生。(4)透射电镜观察结果表明,MG132处理的确诱导了自体吞噬作用的发生以及随后发生的自噬起源的细胞质液泡化。该研究结果为泛素/蛋白酶体途径与自体吞噬依赖的蛋白降解系统之间的联系提供了线索。     

蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132对青扦花粉萌发和花粉管生长的影响

泛素／蛋白酶体系统（UPP）是真核细胞内蛋白质选择性降解的主要途径,而蛋白酶体是UPP中蛋白质降解的场所。本文应用细胞学、统计学方法以及FTIR技术研究了蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132对青扦（Pecea wilsonii）花粉萌发、花粉管生长的影响。结果表明：MG132显著抑制青扦花粉萌发和花粉管生长,并导致花粉管形态异常,主要表现为花粉管亚顶端出现液泡化,并且液泡随着培养时间的延长而扩大到整个花粉管,花粉管濒临死亡;而DMSO以及非蛋白酶体抑制剂E-64不产生类似结果;半薄切片结果表明,MG132处理后不仅花粉管细胞质发生液泡化,生殖细胞也发生液泡化;FTIR分析进一步表明,MG132处理后,花粉管顶端的细胞壁蛋白和果胶质含量大幅度下降。上述结果表明：MG132通过抑制蛋白酶体活性显著影响青扦花粉萌发及花粉管生长;UPP在青扦花粉萌发、花粉管极性生长模式的建立和维持过程中起重要作用;抑制蛋白酶体活性将导致青扦花粉管的程序性死亡。     

HMG盒转录因子1(HBP1)参与H2O2诱导的细胞衰老过程

为探讨HMG盒转录因子1 (HBP1)在过氧化氢（H2O2）诱导的细胞衰老中所起的作用,通过慢病毒感染得到稳定表达HBP1的MDA-MB-231细胞,以H2O2处理细胞．采用Western免疫印迹杂交试验和实时PCR检测HBP1、p16和细胞周期蛋白D1（cyclinD1）表达水平的变化．用荧光免疫试验检测H2O2对HBP1表达的影响,以及HBP1在H2O2的诱导下对于p16和细胞周期蛋白D1启动子的影响．用细胞增殖试验检测H2O2对于细胞增殖的影响． 用基因敲减实验和衰老相关β半乳糖苷酶(SA-β-Gal)染色检测在H2O2诱导的细胞衰老中HBP1所起的作用．Western和免疫荧光实验结果显示,细胞经H2O2处理后,HBP1表达增高的同时促进了p16的表达,降低了细胞周期蛋白D1的表达．细胞增殖实验结果显示,H2O2显著抑制了细胞的增殖．基因敲减实验和SA-β-Gal染色实验说明,H2O2可诱导HBP1表达正常的MDA-MB-231细胞衰老,而HBP1的敲减则抑制了H2O2诱导的细胞衰老过程．本研究结果提示,在H2O2诱导的衰老中,HBP1的表达显著增加,并通过促进衰老相关基因p16的表达和抑制生长因子cyclinD1的表达来阻碍细胞增殖,促进细胞衰老．HBP1在H2O2诱导的细胞衰老过程中起着重要作用,H2O2诱导的细胞衰老必须在HBP1存在的情况下才能发生．     

核纤层蛋白B1通过影响端粒酶活性调控肝癌细胞生长

核纤层蛋白B1(nuclear lamina protein B1,LMNB1)高表达于肝癌组织中,通过敲低LMNB1探讨其对肝癌细胞增殖的影响及其机制。利用siRNA在肝癌细胞中敲低LMNB1,Western blotting检测敲低效果,使用端粒重复序列扩增法(telomeric repeat amplification protocol assay,TRAP)检测其端粒酶活性变化。利用实时定量聚合酶链反应(quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction,qPCR)检测其端粒长度变化。并通过CCK-8、克隆形成、Transwell、划痕实验检测其生长,侵袭和迁移能力变化。利用慢病毒系统构建稳定敲低LMNB1的HepG2细胞,检测其端粒长度及端粒酶活性变化,采用SA-β-gal衰老染色检测细胞衰老情况,通过裸鼠皮下成瘤实验及对肿瘤后续的组化染色,SA-β-gal衰老染色,端粒荧光原位杂交(fluorescence in situ hybridization,FISH)检测其对成瘤性的影响。最后利用生物信息分析的方法寻找LMNB1在临床肝癌组织中的表达情况,及其与临床分期、病人生存期的关系。HepG2和Hep3B中敲低LMNB1后端粒酶活性显著降低,细胞增殖、迁移和侵袭能力显著降低,细胞和裸鼠成瘤实验证明稳定敲低LMNB1后端粒酶活性降低的同时端粒长度缩短,细胞发生衰老,此外细胞成瘤性降低,Ki-67表达降低,生物信息分析结果显示,LMNB1高表达于肝癌组织,且与肿瘤分期和患者生存相关。LMNB1在肝癌细胞中过表达,其有望成为评估肝癌患者临床预后的指标和精准治疗的靶点。     

细胞衰老与癌症治疗

细胞衰老是生物界普遍存在的现象。肿瘤细胞是一类摆脱细胞周期束缚,突破Hayflick界限,能够无限增殖而不衰老的细胞。癌症是一种与细胞衰老密切相关的疾病。从进化的角度来看,衰老对于生物体是有益的,可以导致细胞不可逆的周期阻滞,被认为是一种自主的肿瘤抑制机制。在恶性增殖的癌细胞中,在胞外及胞内多种刺激下,如端粒缩短、DNA损伤、氧化应激以及化疗药物的处理等,都会出现细胞周期阻滞,生长迟缓等细胞衰老现象。诱导肿瘤细胞衰老也被认为是一种治疗癌症的有效手段。衰老细胞可以向胞外分泌数十种因子,维持细胞自身衰老表型,并影响周围细胞的生长,这种特性被称为衰老相关的分泌表型(SASP)。本文详细综述细胞衰老的形态学特征与分子标记物及检测方法,细胞衰老的信号调控通路（p53-p21,p16-pRB和PTEN-p27）,以及细胞衰老与恶性肿瘤发生发展的关系等。尤其是应激压力诱导下的细胞衰老在癌症治疗中的潜在作用,并进一步讨论当下流行的促衰老癌症治疗的靶点与药物以及存在的问题,以期为今后的研究提供新思路和新方向。     

Induction of cellular senescence by insulin-like growth factor binding protein-5 through a p53-dependent mechanism

The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling pathway plays a crucial role in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and aging. IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) are important members of the IGF axis. IGFBP-5 is up-regulated during cellular senescence in human dermal fibroblasts and endothelial cells, but the function of IGFBP-5 in cellular senescence is unknown. Here we show that IGFBP-5 plays important roles in the regulation of cellular senescence. Knockdown of IGFBP-5 in old human umbilical endothelial cells (HUVECs) with IGFBP-5 micro-RNA lentivirus caused partial reduction of a variety of senescent phenotypes, such as changes in cell morphology, increases in cell proliferation, and decreases in senescence-associated beta-galactosidase (SA-beta-gal) staining. In addition, treatment with IGFBP-5 protein or up-regulation of IGFBP-5 in young cells accelerates cellular senescence, as confirmed by cell proliferation and SA-beta-gal staining. Premature senescence induced by IGFBP-5 up-regulation in young cells was rescued by knockdown of p53, but not by knockdown of p16. Furthermore, atherosclerotic arteries exhibited strong IGFBP-5-positive staining along intimal plaques. These results suggest that IGFBP-5 plays a role in the regulation of cellular senescence via a p53-dependent pathway and in aging-associated vascular diseases.     

miR-22 represses cancer progression by inducing cellular senescence

Cellular senescence acts as a barrier to cancer progression, and microRNAs (miRNAs) are thought to be potential senescence regulators. However, whether senescence-associated miRNAs (SA-miRNAs) contribute to tumor suppression remains unknown. Here, we report that miR-22, a novel SA-miRNA, has an impact on tumorigenesis. miR-22 is up-regulated in human senescent fibroblasts and epithelial cells but down-regulated in various cancer cell lines. miR-22 overexpression induces growth suppression and acquisition of a senescent phenotype in human normal and cancer cells. miR-22 knockdown in presenescent fibroblasts decreased cell size, and cells became more compact. miR-22-induced senescence also decreases cell motility and inhibits cell invasion in vitro. Synthetic miR-22 delivery suppresses tumor growth and metastasis in vivo by inducing cellular senescence in a mouse model of breast carcinoma. We confirmed that CDK6, SIRT1, and Sp1, genes involved in the senescence program, are direct targets of miR-22. Our study provides the first evidence that miR-22 restores the cellular senescence program in cancer cells and acts as a tumor suppressor.     

Mitochondrial DNA damage induces apoptosis in senescent cells

Senescence is a cellular response to damage and stress. The senescence response prevents cancer by suppressing the proliferation of cells with a compromised genome and contributes to optimal wound healing in normal tissues. Persistent senescent cells are also thought to drive aging and age-associated pathologies through their secretion of inflammatory factors that modify the tissue microenvironment and alter the function of nearby normal or transformed cells. Understanding how senescent cells alter the microenvironment would be aided by the ability to induce or eliminate senescent cells at will in vivo. Here, we combine the use of the synthetic nucleoside analog ganciclovir (GCV) with herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSVtk) activity to create or eliminate senescent human cells. We show that low concentrations of GCV induce senescence through the accumulation of nuclear DNA damage while higher concentrations of GCV, similar to those used in vivo, kill non-dividing senescent cells via mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) damage and caspase-dependent apoptosis. Using this system, we effectively eliminated xenografted normal human senescent fibroblasts or induced senescence in human breast cancer cells in vivo. Thus, cellular senescence and mtDNA damage are outcomes of synthetic nucleoside analog treatment, indicating that the GCV–HSVtk combination can be used effectively to promote the targeted formation or eradication of senescent cells.     

Expression of connective tissue growth factor, a biomarker in senescence of human diploid fibroblasts, is up-regulated by a transforming growth factor-beta-mediated signaling pathway

Molecular changes associated with cellular senescence in human diploid fibroblasts (HDF), IMR-90, were analyzed by two-dimensional differential proteome analysis. A high percentage of replicative senescent cells were positive for senescence-associated beta-galactosidase activity, and displayed elevated levels of p21 and p53 proteins. Comparison of early population doubling level (PDL) versus replicative senescent cells among the 1000 spots resolved on gels revealed that the signal intensities of six spots were increased fivefold, whereas those of four spots were decreased. Proteome analysis data demonstrated that connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) is an age-associated protein. Up-regulation of CTGF expression in senescent cells was further confirmed by Western blotting and RT-PCR. We postulate that CTGF expression is controlled, in part, by transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), in view of the high levels of TGF-beta isoforms as well as type I and II receptors detected only in late PDL of HDF cells. To verify this hypothesis, we stimulated early PDL cells with TGF-beta1 as well as stress inducing agents such as hydrogen peroxide. As expected, CTGF expression and Smad protein phosphorylation were dramatically increased up to observed levels in normal replicative senescent cells. In vivo experiments disclosed that CTGF, pSmad, and p53 were constitutively expressed at basal levels in up to 18-month-old rat liver, and expression was significantly up-regulated in 24-month-old rat tissue. However, expression patterns were not altered at all periods examined in livers of caloric-restricted rats. In view of both in vitro and in vivo data, we propose that the TGF-beta/Smad pathway functions in the induction of CTGF, a novel biomarker protein of cellular senescence in human fibroblasts.     

EZH2在衰老细胞中表达下调引起Netrin-1表达增加进而促进交感神经轴突生长

交感神经在一些疾病动物模型和老年小鼠模型组织中呈现发芽生长和密度增加的趋势。这提示,交感神经与衰老密切相关。本研究采用免疫组织化学检测老年小鼠肝、肺、脾组织和人结肠腺瘤组织衰老模型中交感神经标记蛋白酪氨酸羟化酶（TH）的表达情况。结果证实,衰老组织中的交感神经密度显著增加。然而,目前对衰老组织的这种生物学改变机制尚不明确。本研究以人成纤维细胞系2BS为实验材料,经转录组测序发现,分泌性轴突导向因子导蛋白-1在衰老细胞中上调表达。ELISA和实时定量PCR结果显示,在博来霉素、离子射线、癌蛋白RasV12过表达所诱导的早衰及复制性衰老的2BS细胞中,导蛋白-1的蛋白质和mRNA表达量均比年轻对照组高。DNA损伤反应（DNA damage response,DDR）是调控衰老细胞分泌蛋白质表达的重要途径。为明确导蛋白-1在衰老细胞的上调表达是否与DDR相关,使用小分子化合物抑制DDR的重要效应分子ATM（ataxia telangiectasia mutated）和CHK2（checkpoint kinase 2）在博来霉素诱导的衰老2BS细胞中的活性。ELISA和实时定量PCR结果显示,与博来霉素诱导衰老组相比,阻断衰老细胞中的DDR活性未引起导蛋白-1表达水平的改变。提示导蛋白-1在衰老细胞中的表达不依赖于DDR途径。Western印迹检测发现组蛋白甲基转移酶EZH2在衰老细胞中的蛋白质表达明显少于年轻细胞;实时定量PCR结果表明使用小分子化合物抑制EZH2在年轻细胞中的活性引起导蛋白-1表达增加;CHIP实验检测发现,EZH2对年轻细胞的导蛋白-1启动子区DNA片段富集显著而在衰老细胞未见富集。以上结果提示EZH2在衰老细胞中的下调表达是导蛋白-1表达增加的重要原因。大鼠DRG与衰老细胞共培养结果证实,衰老细胞对交感神经具有导向作用,并且该现象依赖于导蛋白-1的分泌。根据以上结果得出结论,导蛋白-1在衰老细胞中的上调表达不依赖于DDR途径而与EZH2的下调表达相关,衰老细胞通过分泌导蛋白-1促进交感神经轴突定向生长。本研究为深入探讨衰老相关疾病的发生机制以及防治提供了新线索,具有一定的科学意义和潜在的转化应用价值。     

Ligand-activated PPARδ inhibits UVB-induced senescence of human keratinocytes via PTEN-mediated inhibition of superoxide production

UV radiation-mediated photodamage to the skin has been implicated in premature aging and photoaging-related skin cancer and melanoma. Little is known about the cellular events that underlie premature senescence, or how to impede these events. In the present study we demonstrate that PPARδ (peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor δ) regulates UVB-induced premature senescence of normal keratinocytes. Activation of PPARδ by GW501516, a specific ligand of PPARδ, significantly attenuated UVB-mediated generation of ROS (reactive oxygen species) and suppressed senescence of human keratinocytes. Ligand-activated PPARδ up-regulated the expression of PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10) and suppressed the PI3K (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase)/Akt pathway. Concomitantly, translocation of Rac1 to the plasma membrane, which leads to the activation of NADPH oxidases and generation of ROS, was significantly attenuated. siRNA (small interfering RNA)-mediated knockdown of PTEN abrogated the effects of PPARδ on cellular senescence, on PI3K/Akt/Rac1 signalling and on generation of ROS in keratinocytes exposed to UVB. Finally, when HR-1 hairless mice were treated with GW501516 before exposure to UVB, the number of senescent cells in the skin was significantly reduced. Thus ligand-activated PPARδ confers resistance to UVB-induced cellular senescence by up-regulating PTEN and thereby modulating PI3K/Akt/Rac1 signalling to reduce ROS generation in keratinocytes.     

Radiation induces senescence and a bystander effect through metabolic alterations

Cellular senescence is a state of irreversible growth arrest; however, the metabolic processes of senescent cells remain active. Our previous studies have shown that radiation induces senescence of human breast cancer cells that display low expression of securin, a protein involved in control of the metaphase–anaphase transition and anaphase onset. In this study, the protein expression profile of senescent cells was resolved by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis to investigate associated metabolic alterations. We found that radiation induced the expression and activation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase that has an important role in glycolysis. The activity of lactate dehydrogenase A, which is involved in the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, the release of lactate and the acidification of the extracellular environment, was also induced. Inhibition of glycolysis by dichloroacetate attenuated radiation-induced senescence. In addition, radiation also induced activation of the 5′-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathways to promote senescence. We also found that radiation increased the expression of monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1) that facilitates the export of lactate into the extracellular environment. Inhibition of glycolysis or the AMPK/NF-κB signalling pathways reduced MCT1 expression and rescued the acidification of the extracellular environment. Interestingly, these metabolic-altering signalling pathways were also involved in radiation-induced invasion of the surrounding, non-irradiated breast cancer and normal endothelial cells. Taken together, radiation can induce the senescence of human breast cancer cells through metabolic alterations.