Cladistic analysis of the Neotropical butterfly genus Adelpha (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), with comments on the subtribal classification of Limenitidini

Abstract.  A two-stage cladistic analysis of 114 characters from adult and immature stage morphology provided phylogenetic hypotheses for the diverse Neotropical nymphalid butterfly genus Adelpha Hübner. Higher-level cladistic relationships were inferred for thirty Adelpha species and twenty other species of Limenitidini, confirming the monophyly of Adelpha as currently conceived and indicating several montane Asian species as potential sister taxa for the genus. Cladistic relationships between all eighty-five Adelpha species were then inferred using three outgroup combinations. Basal and terminal nodes were reasonably resolved and supported, but a low proportion of non-wing pattern characters resulted in weak resolution and support in the middle of the tree. The most basal members of Adelpha feed on the temperate or montane plant family Caprifoliaceae, suggesting that a switch from this family early in the evolutionary history was important in subsequent diversification into tropical lowland habitats. The cladograms confirm suspicions of earlier authors that dorsal mimetic wing patterns have convergently evolved a number of times in Adelpha . The subtribal classification of Limenitidini is discussed and both Lebadea (from Parthenina) and Neptina are transferred to Limenitidina, whereas Cymothoe , Bhagadatta and Pseudoneptis (all formerly Limenitidina) are regarded as incertae sedis .     

Biology and immature stages of cotton stainers (Heteroptera: Pyrrhocoridae) found in Ghana

Biology and immature stages of four species of Dysdercus found in Ghana are studied in detail. Complete life cycles of the species are followed in the laboratory. The larval stages are fully described for the first time. Keys to distinguish the larvae and adults are constructed. Relationship between measurements of successive instars is discussed.     

A new stem-borer of the genus Bucculatrix (Lepidoptera: Bucculatricidae) from Japan, with description of the life history

A new species of bucculaticid moth, Bucculatrix hamaboella sp. nov. (Host plant: Hibiscus hamabo , Malvaceae) is described from Wakayama Prefecture, Japan. The feeding habit of the new species is unique in that: (i) the young larva is a leaf miner forming a long red linear mine but in the later instars the larva becomes a stem borer; (ii) later instar larvae undergo double molts within a cocoonet (molting cocoon); and (iii) penultimate and final instars appear on the surface of the leaf as non-feeding stages. The external non-feeding larvae of B. hamaboella undergoing double molts within one cocoonet are considered to be an abbreviated form of the external feeding instars of other bucculatricids typically making first and second cocoonets, undergoing a single molt within each cocoonet. On the basis of morphological characters, this species is related to the species of Sections I and II (Host: Asteraceae) of Braun (1963), rather than to the species of Section VIII (Host: Malvaceae).     

Winter survival of immature instars of Mansonia indubitans Dyar & Shannon and Mansonia titillans Walker (Diptera: Culicidae), in Buenos Aires, Argentina

We conducted a whole year research on the ecology of Mansonia indubitans and Ma. titillans in Macáes Pond, Costanera Sur Reserve, Buenos Aires, Argentina. The usage of different floating plants by immature instars and their overwintering was analyzed. The percentage of usage of the available floating macrophytes (Pistia, Limnobium, and Salvinia) by the larvae and pupae was studied. Also, we defined positivity (P+) as the percentage of plants with immature instars for each plant genus on a monthly basis. Ma. immature instars were captured throughout the year and Pistia was the resource most commonly exploited by the mosquitoes. The percentage of fourth-instar larvae and pupae on Pistia roots with respect to total immature instars captured was assessed on a monthly and seasonal basis. The proportion of fourth-instar larvae and pupae from both species of Mansonia on water lettuce roots, showed significant differences between months and seasons. Our results suggest that the populations of Ma. indubitans and Ma. titillans in Macáes Pond, survive during winter mainly as fourth-instar larvae.     

Rapid diversification and not clade age explains high diversity in neotropical Adelpha butterflies

Latitudinal gradients in species richness are among the most well-known biogeographic patterns in nature, and yet there remains much debate and little consensus over the ecological and evolutionary causes of these gradients. Here, we evaluated whether two prominent alternative hypotheses (namely differences in diversification rate or clade age) could account for the latitudinal diversity gradient in one of the most speciose neotropical butterfly genera (Adelpha) and its close relatives. We generated a multilocus phylogeny of a diverse group of butterflies in the containing tribe Limenitidini, which has both temperate and tropical representatives. Our results suggest there is no relationship between clade age and species richness that could account for the diversity gradient, but that instead it could be explained by a significantly higher diversification rate within the predominantly tropical genus Adelpha. An apparent early larval host-plant shift to Rubiaceae and other plant families suggests that the availability of new potential host plants probably contributed to an increase in diversification of Adelpha in the lowland Neotropics. Collectively, our results support the hypothesis that the equatorial peak in species richness observed within Adelpha is the result of increased diversification rate in the last 10-15 Myr rather than a function of clade age, perhaps reflecting adaptive divergence in response to the dramatic host-plant diversity found within neotropical ecosystems.     

The preimaginal stages of Pnigalio gyamiensis Myartseva & Kurashev, 1990 (Hymenoptera, Eulophidae), a parasitoid associated with Chrysoesthia sexguttella (Thunberg) (Lepidoptera, Gelechiidae)

The larval instars of Pnigalio gyamiensis Myartseva and Kurashev are described in detail for the first time. This species is a larval-pupal ectoparasitoid of Chrysoesthia sexguttella (Thunberg) (Lepidoptera, Gelechiidae), which forms leaf mines in the plant Chenopodium album L. (Caryophyllales: Amaranthaceae). The female of Pnigalio gyamiensis lays a single egg on the skin of the host larva or nearby it, without any significant preference for a particular variant. The presence of long hairs on its body provides the newly-hatched first larval instar with high mobility. Some peculiarities in this parasitoid-host relationship are described.     

A new Brazilian Passiflora leafminer: Spinivalva gaucha,gen. n., sp. n. (Lepidoptera,Gracillariidae, Gracillariinae), the first gracillariid without a sap-feeding instar

Male, female, pupa, larva and egg of a new genus and species of Gracillariidae (Gracillariinae), Spinivalva gaucha Moreira and Vargas from southern Brazil are described and illustrated with the aid of optical and scanning electron microscopy. A preliminary analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences including members of related lineages is also provided. The immature stages are associated with Passiflora actinia, Passiflora misera and Passiflora suberosa (Passifloraceae), and build mines on the adaxial leaf surface. Initially the mines are serpentine in shape, but later in larval ontogeny become a blotch type. Although the larvae are hypermetamorphic as in other Gracillariidae, there is no sap-feeding instar in Spinivalva gaucha; the larva feeds on the palisade parenchyma, thus producing granular frass during all instars. Pupation occurs outside the mine; prior to pupating, the larva excretes numerous bubbles that are placed in rows on the lateral margins of the cocoon external surface. This is the second genus of gracillariid moth described for the Atlantic Rain Forest, and the second gracillariid species known to be associated with Passifloraceae.     

Effects of Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. (Meliaceae) extract on the malarial vector Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae)

In recent years, use of environmentally friendly and biodegradable natural insecticides of plant origin have received renewed attention as agents for disease vector control. Methanol extracts of leaves from the Indian white cedar Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd. (Meliaceae) were tested against mature and immature Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera) mosquitoes under laboratory conditions. The extract showed strong larvicidal, pupicidal, adulticidal, and antiovipositional activity. The maximum leaf extract concentration tested in this study was 4%, which produced pronounced effects. In general, first and second instars were more susceptible to leaf extract than older insects. Clear dose-response relationships were established, with the highest dose of 4% plant extract causing 97% mortality of first instars.     

Development and evaluation of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect Pieris rapae remains in guts of arthropod predators

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed to detect remains of Pieris rapae L. (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) immature stages in the guts of field collected arthropod predators. The assay can be used to help ascertain the relative importance of arthropod predator species in suppressing P. rapae in cabbage, Brassica oleracea var. capitata L. The ELISA is sensitive to all immature stages of P. rapae, although first and fifth instars can be detected more readily than eggs or pupae and third instars showed intermediate detectability. Assays on whole body homogenates of predators readily detected predation on P. rapae first instars by all seven of the predator species tested, although response generally declined with increasing predator size. Together the results show that the P. rapae ELISA possesses a sufficiently high level of sensitivity and specificity to be a useful tool in helping to elucidate the roles of arthropod predator species in reducing populations of P. rapae in cabbage.     

Beyond the colours: discovering hidden diversity in the Nymphalidae of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico through DNA barcoding

Background

Recent studies have demonstrated the utility of DNA barcoding in the discovery of overlooked species and in the connection of immature and adult stages. In this study, we use DNA barcoding to examine diversity patterns in 121 species of Nymphalidae from the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. Our results suggest the presence of cryptic species in 8 of these 121 taxa. As well, the reference database derived from the analysis of adult specimens allowed the identification of nymphalid caterpillars providing new details on host plant use.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We gathered DNA barcode sequences from 857 adult Nymphalidae representing 121 different species. This total includes four species (Adelpha iphiclus, Adelpha malea, Hamadryas iphtime and Taygetis laches) that were initially overlooked because of their close morphological similarity to other species. The barcode results showed that each of the 121 species possessed a diagnostic array of barcode sequences. In addition, there was evidence of cryptic taxa; seven species included two barcode clusters showing more than 2% sequence divergence while one species included three clusters. All 71 nymphalid caterpillars were identified to a species level by their sequence congruence to adult sequences. These caterpillars represented 16 species, and included Hamadryas julitta, an endemic species from the Yucatan Peninsula whose larval stages and host plant (Dalechampia schottii, also endemic to the Yucatan Peninsula) were previously unknown.

Conclusions/Significance

This investigation has revealed overlooked species in a well-studied museum collection of nymphalid butterflies and suggests that there is a substantial incidence of cryptic species that await full characterization. The utility of barcoding in the rapid identification of caterpillars also promises to accelerate the assembly of information on life histories, a particularly important advance for hyperdiverse tropical insect assemblages.     

Vulnerability of Bemisia tabaci immatures to phytoseiid predators: Consequences for oviposition and influence of alternative food

An earlier study showed that two phytoseiid species, Euseius scutalis (Athias‐Henriot) and Typhlodromips swirskii (Athias‐Henriot) (Acari: Phytoseiidae), are capable of suppressing populations of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleurodidae) on isolated cucumber plants supplied with Typha latifolia L. pollen. However, the predators did not exterminate their prey, and this may be caused by the existence of invulnerable B. tabaci stages. Little is known of the differential vulnerability of the immature B. tabaci stages. Here, we quantified their vulnerability by assessing the rate of predation on each of the immature stages when offered alone at a density high enough to allow for a maximal predation rate. All immature stages of B. tabaci were vulnerable to predation by each of the two predator species. However, the per capita predation rates, the oviposition rates of phytoseiids, as well as the percentage of predators feeding and the percentage ovipositing decreased with increasing stages of B. tabaci. Compared to that of eggs and 1st instars, the vulnerability of 2nd and later B. tabaci instars is an order of magnitude lower. To investigate how the presence of alternative food changes the rates of predation, we added pollen to a diet of 1st instars, one of the most vulnerable instars. This resulted in a decrease in the predation rate of E. scutalis, but not of T. swirskii, while the oviposition rate of both phytoseiid species remained equally high. The decreased predation of the 1st instars probably resulted from E. scutalis switching to pollen feeding.     

Martinssonia elongata gen. et sp.n., a crustacean-like euarthropod from the Upper Cambrian 'Orsten' of Sweden

A tiny arthropod, with five growth stages, is described. Three of the instars are metanauplius-like larvae, having unsegmented bodies and four pairs of appendages. The largest stage, with a length of about 1.5 mm, may still be immature. Its body is divided into three tagmata. The cephalon, including five appendiculate segments, h a projecting forehead with a rostral spine and a small shield with a joint between fourth and fifth segments. Eyes are absent. The trunk is composed of seven annular segments, the anterior two with appendages. The caudal end is a long pleotelson-like segment with the anus on its ventral surface. There are seven pairs of appendages: uniramous antennulae, composed of few tubular podomeres; four pairs of biramous postantennular, almost homeomorphic cephalic appendages; two pairs on the trunk, the anterior pair being similar to the cephalic appendages except for the exopodite, the posterior being much smaller, uniramous and apparently rudimentary. Martinssonia was probably benthic, feeding on detritic particles which it stirred up from the bottom. Besides various crustacean-like features, the new form reveals structures different from Crustacea as well as from all other known arthropodan groups. Martinssonia presumably is a descendant of an euarthropodan group, originating from the crustacean branch long before reaching the eucrustacean level of evolution.     

棕榈蓟马在茄子上的种群增长、分布和抽样技术研究

棕榈蓟马在茄子上的种群增长,用种群增长模型来分析,露地栽培的成虫、若虫种群增长率ｒ分别为０．０６３０和０．０８０１,设施栽培分别为０．０９８３和０．１０３６。设施栽培的逻辑斯蒂曲线的Ｋ值为３３．９０,明显大于露地栽培的Ｋ值２３．５０。棕榈蓟马种群在茄子上空间分布调查结果,成、若虫的Ｍ＾＊－Ｍ回归式分别为Ｍ＝０．６０１１＋１．４６８Ｍ和Ｍ＾＊＝７．２５１５＋２．０６４０Ｍ。成虫＋若虫的Ｍ－Ｍ回归式为     

Life History and Laboratory Host Range ofEccritotarsus catarinensis(Carvalho) (Heteroptera: Miridae), a New Natural Enemy Released on Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes(Mart.) Solms-Laub.) (Pontederiaceae) in South Africa

A mirid,Eccritotarsus catarinensis(Carvalho), was studied as a potentially damaging natural enemy for water hyacinth, (Eichhornia crassipes(Mart.) Solms-Laub.), in South Africa. In the laboratory, eggs were inserted into the leaf tissue parallel to the leaf surface. The four nymphal instars fed gregariously with the adults mainly on the undersurface of the leaves, causing severe chlorosis at high population levels. The duration of immature stages (egg and nymphs) was approximately 23 days, while the adults survived for approximately 50 days. Favorable biological characteristics ofE. catarinensisincluded a high rate of increase, gregarious habits, long-lived and mobile adults, and several generations per year. Laboratory host range of the mirid was determined by adult choice trials on 67 plant species in 36 families and adult no-choice trials on five species in the Pontederiaceae. Feeding was recorded on all Pontederiaceae tested and oviposition on four of the five species. However, these plant species proved to be inferior hosts forE. catarinensisin comparison to water hyacinth, suggesting thatE. catarinensiswould be an acceptable natural enemy for water hyacinth in South Africa.     

Observations on Isoetes in Ghana

Three species of Isoetes, I. abyssinica Chiovenda, I. nigritiana A. Br. and I. tenuifolia A. C. Jermy, here described for the first time, are reported from Ghana. All species are found in seasonally saturated or flooded hollows and species lists of associate plants are given for the sites and are discussed in relation to water and soil analyses.
The morphology and anatomy of the sporophylls of all three species are compared, and the taxonomic value of the pseudo-ligule, idioblasts projecting into the four lacunae of the leaf ('internal hairs') and intrastelar canals is evaluated. The first chromosome count for a West African species of Isoetes is reported as 2 n = c . 58.     

Immature stages of Meiosimyza Hendel 1925 and related genera (Diptera,Lauxaniidae)

The immature stages of Holometabolan insects can provide valuable data both for taxonomy and phylogeny, but they are well known only for a negligible proportion of the described species. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis of all preimaginal stages of the lauxaniid species Meiosimyza decempunctata (Fallén 1820), M. platycephala (Loew 1847), M. rorida (Fallén 1820), M.?subfasciata (Zetterstedt 1838), Tricholauxania praeusta (Fallén 1820) and Aulogastromyia anisodactyla (Loew 1845) is presented for the first time. Detailed images of eggs and all three larval instars are provided along with illustrations of the cephaloskeleton and photos of puparia. The egg is rather simple, white, with developed longitudinal ridges. The body integument of all larval instars is smooth and uniform across species. The cephaloskeleton is slender; the mouth hooks are parallel, subhypostomal sclerites are arched and fusing to a ventral bridge. The puparium is brownish, oval, without calcareous deposits. Generally, the morphology of larvae and puparia is very conservative. On the other hand, the eggs show considerable degree of interspecific variability.     

Parasitism of the backswimmer Buenoa scimitra (Hemiptera: Notonectidae) by the water mite Hydrachna virella (Acari: Hydrachnellae)

SUMMARY. The life cycle of Hydrachna virella , a water mite parasitic on the notonectid backswimmer Buenoa scimitra , is described. The mite parasitizes immature instars 2–5 as well as adult males and females of the notonectid. Parasitized immature backswimmers spent longer periods of time between moults than unparasitized immature backswimmers. Initially attaching mites appeared to be generally distributed over the host body surface but previously attached mites that reattached after host ecdysis were found primarily on the dorsum of the thorax. The observed frequency distribution of mite larvae on the host was similar to that predicted by the negative binomial distribution.