Distribution of CD133 reveals glioma stem cells self-renew through symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions

Malignant gliomas contain a population of self-renewing tumorigenic stem-like cells; however, it remains unclear how these glioma stem cells (GSCs) self-renew or generate cellular diversity at the single-cell level. Asymmetric cell division is a proposed mechanism to maintain cancer stem cells, yet the modes of cell division that GSCs utilize remain undetermined. Here, we used single-cell analyses to evaluate the cell division behavior of GSCs. Lineage-tracing analysis revealed that the majority of GSCs were generated through expansive symmetric cell division and not through asymmetric cell division. The majority of differentiated progeny was generated through symmetric pro-commitment divisions under expansion conditions and in the absence of growth factors, occurred mainly through asymmetric cell divisions. Mitotic pair analysis detected asymmetric CD133 segregation and not any other GSC marker in a fraction of mitoses, some of which were associated with Numb asymmetry. Under growth factor withdrawal conditions, the proportion of asymmetric CD133 divisions increased, congruent with the increase in asymmetric cell divisions observed in the lineage-tracing studies. Using single-cell-based observation, we provide definitive evidence that GSCs are capable of different modes of cell division and that the generation of cellular diversity occurs mainly through symmetric cell division, not through asymmetric cell division.     

Biophysical factors in the regulation of asymmetric division of stem cells

Stem cells are a promising cell source for regenerative medicine due to their characteristics of self‐renewal and differentiation. The intricate balance between these two cell fates is maintained by precisely controlled symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions. Asymmetric division has a fundamental importance in maintaining tissue homeostasis and in the development of multi‐cellular organisms. For example, during development, asymmetric cell divisions are responsible for the formation of the body axis. Mechanistically, mitotic spindle dynamics determine the assembly and separation of chromosomes and regulate the orientation of cell division. Interestingly, symmetric and asymmetric cell division is not mutually exclusive and a range of factors are involved in such cell‐fate decisions, the measurement of which can provide efficient and reliable information on the regenerative potential of a cell. The balance between self‐renewal and differentiation in stem cells is controlled by various biophysical and biochemical cues. Although the role of biochemical factors in asymmetric stem cell division has been widely studied, the effect of biophysical cues in stem‐cell self‐renewal is not comprehensively understood. Herein, we review the biological relevance of stem‐cell asymmetric division to regenerative medicine and discuss the influences of various intrinsic and extrinsic biophysical cues in stem‐cell self‐renewal. This review particularly aims to inform the clinical translation of efforts to control the self‐renewal ability of stem cells through the tuning of various biophysical cues.     

哺乳动物卵母细胞不对称分裂的研究进展

哺乳动物卵母细胞成熟过程需要进行两次连续的不对称分裂,最终形成体积差异巨大的子细胞：大体积的卵母细胞和两种体积较小的极体。不对称分裂现象是哺乳动物卵母细胞减数分裂的典型特征,不对称分裂后的卵母细胞是高度极化的细胞。精卵结合后,细胞重新恢复了对称分裂,但是在卵母细胞减数分裂过程中形成的极性特征却得以保留并影响早期胚胎的极性。本文对近年来在哺乳动物卵母细胞不对称分裂方面的相关研究展开综述,从细胞质不对称分裂和细胞核不对称分裂两个方面对染色体、细胞骨架在哺乳动物卵母细胞不对称分裂中的作用、细胞器在哺乳动物卵母细胞成熟过程中的重组分配、染色体非随机分离等过程进行介绍,旨在从细胞和分子水平阐述哺乳动物卵母细胞不对称分裂的主要机制。     

Time-lapse analysis of stem-cell divisions in the Arabidopsis thaliana root meristem

In the Arabidopsis root, asymmetric stem-cell divisions produce daughters that form the different root cell types. Here we report the establishment of a confocal tracking system that allows the analysis of numbers and orientations of cell divisions in root stem cells. The system provides direct evidence that stem cells have lower division rates than cells in the proximal meristem. It also allows tracking of cell division timing, which we have used to analyse the synchronization of root cap divisions. Finally, it gives new insights into lateral root cap formation: epidermal stem-cell daughters can rotate the orientation of the division plane like the stem cell.     

Live Imaging of Drosophila Larval Neuroblasts

Stem cells divide asymmetrically to generate two progeny cells with unequal fate potential: a self-renewing stem cell and a differentiating cell. Given their relevance to development and disease, understanding the mechanisms that govern asymmetric stem cell division has been a robust area of study. Because they are genetically tractable and undergo successive rounds of cell division about once every hour, the stem cells of the Drosophila central nervous system, or neuroblasts, are indispensable models for the study of stem cell division. About 100 neural stem cells are located near the surface of each of the two larval brain lobes, making this model system particularly useful for live imaging microscopy studies. In this work, we review several approaches widely used to visualize stem cell divisions, and we address the relative advantages and disadvantages of those techniques that employ dissociated versus intact brain tissues. We also detail our simplified protocol used to explant whole brains from third instar larvae for live cell imaging and fixed analysis applications.     

Two types of asymmetric divisions in the Drosophila sensory organ precursor cell lineage

Asymmetric partitioning of cell-fate determinants during development requires coordinating the positioning of these determinants with orientation of the mitotic spindle. In the Drosophila peripheral nervous system, sensory organ progenitor cells (SOPs) undergo several rounds of division to produce five cells that give rise to a complete sensory organ. Here we have observed the asymmetric divisions that give rise to these cells in the developing pupae using green fluorescent protein fusion proteins. We find that spindle orientation and determinant localization are tightly coordinated at each division. Furthermore, we find that two types of asymmetric divisions exist within the sensory organ precursor cell lineage: the anterior-posterior pI cell-type division, where the spindle remains symmetric throughout mitosis, and the strikingly neuroblast-like apical-basal division of the pIIb cell, where the spindle exhibits a strong asymmetry at anaphase. In both these divisions, the spindle reorientates to position itself perpendicular to the region of the cortex containing the determinant. On the basis of these observations, we propose that two distinct mechanisms for controlling asymmetric cell divisions occur within the same lineage in the developing peripheral nervous system in Drosophila.     

Sterols are required for cell‐fate commitment and maintenance of the stomatal lineage in Arabidopsis

Asymmetric cell division is important for regulating cell proliferation and fate determination during stomatal development in plants. Although genes that control asymmetric division and cell differentiation in stomatal development have been reported, regulators controlling the process from asymmetric division to cell differentiation remain poorly understood. Here, we report a weak allele (fk–J3158) of the Arabidopsis sterol C–14 reductase gene FACKEL (FK) that shows clusters of small cells and stomata in leaf epidermis, a common phenomenon that is often seen in mutants defective in stomatal asymmetric division. Interestingly, the physical asymmetry of these divisions appeared to be intact in fk mutants, but the cell‐fate asymmetry was greatly disturbed, suggesting that the FK pathway links these two crucial events in the process of asymmetric division. Sterol profile analysis revealed that the fk–J3158 mutation blocked downstream sterol production. Further investigation indicated that cyclopropylsterol isomerase1 (cpi1), sterol 14α–demethylase (cyp51A2) and hydra1 (hyd1) mutants, corresponding to enzymes in the same branch of the sterol biosynthetic pathway, displayed defective stomatal development phenotypes, similar to those observed for fk. Fenpropimorph, an inhibitor of the FK sterol C–14 reductase in Arabidopsis, also caused these abnormal small‐cell and stomata phenotypes in wild‐type leaves. Genetic experiments demonstrated that sterol biosynthesis is required for correct stomatal patterning, probably through an additional signaling pathway that has yet to be defined. Detailed analyses of time‐lapse cell division patterns, stomatal precursor cell division markers and DNA ploidy suggest that sterols are required to properly restrict cell proliferation, asymmetric fate specification, cell‐fate commitment and maintenance in the stomatal lineage cells. These events occur after physical asymmetric division of stomatal precursor cells.     

Asymmetric distribution of the apical plasma membrane during neurogenic divisions of mammalian neuroepithelial cells

At the onset of neurogenesis in the mammalian central nervous system, neuroepithelial cells switch from symmetric, proliferative to asymmetric, neurogenic divisions. In analogy to the asymmetric division of Drosophila neuroblasts, this switch of mammalian neuroepithelial cells is thought to involve a change in cleavage plane orientation from perpendicular (vertical cleavage) to parallel (horizontal cleavage) relative to the apical surface of the neuroepithelium. Here, we report, using TIS21-GFP knock-in mouse embryos to identify neurogenic neuroepithelial cells, that at the onset as well as advanced stages of neurogenesis the vast majority of neurogenic divisions, like proliferative divisions, show vertical cleavage planes. Remarkably, however, neurogenic divisions of neuroepithelial cells, but not proliferative ones, involve an asymmetric distribution to the daughter cells of the apical plasma membrane, which constitutes only a minute fraction (1-2%) of the entire neuroepithelial cell plasma membrane. Our results support a novel concept for the cell biological basis of asymmetric, neurogenic divisions of neuroepithelial cells in the mammalian central nervous system.     

Spindle orientation and epidermal morphogenesis

Asymmetric cell divisions (ACDs) result in two unequal daughter cells and are a hallmark of stem cells. ACDs can be achieved either by asymmetric partitioning of proteins and organelles or by asymmetric cell fate acquisition due to the microenvironment in which the daughters are placed. Increasing evidence suggests that in the mammalian epidermis, both of these processes occur. During embryonic epidermal development, changes occur in the orientation of the mitotic spindle in relation to the underlying basement membrane. These changes are guided by conserved molecular machinery that is operative in lower eukaryotes and dictates asymmetric partitioning of proteins during cell divisions. That said, the shift in spindle alignment also determines whether a division will be parallel or perpendicular to the basement membrane, and this in turn provides a differential microenvironment for the resulting daughter cells. Here, we review how oriented divisions of progenitors contribute to the development and stratification of the epidermis.     

Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Stem Cell Divisions: An Adaptation against Cancer?

Traditionally, it has been held that a central characteristic of stem cells is their ability to divide asymmetrically. Recent advances in inducible genetic labeling provided ample evidence that symmetric stem cell divisions play an important role in adult mammalian homeostasis. It is well understood that the two types of cell divisions differ in terms of the stem cells'' flexibility to expand when needed. On the contrary, the implications of symmetric and asymmetric divisions for mutation accumulation are still poorly understood. In this paper we study a stochastic model of a renewing tissue, and address the optimization problem of tissue architecture in the context of mutant production. Specifically, we study the process of tumor suppressor gene inactivation which usually takes place as a consequence of two “hits”, and which is one of the most common patterns in carcinogenesis. We compare and contrast symmetric and asymmetric (and mixed) stem cell divisions, and focus on the rate at which double-hit mutants are generated. It turns out that symmetrically-dividing cells generate such mutants at a rate which is significantly lower than that of asymmetrically-dividing cells. This result holds whether single-hit (intermediate) mutants are disadvantageous, neutral, or advantageous. It is also independent on whether the carcinogenic double-hit mutants are produced only among the stem cells or also among more specialized cells. We argue that symmetric stem cell divisions in mammals could be an adaptation which helps delay the onset of cancers. We further investigate the question of the optimal fraction of stem cells in the tissue, and quantify the contribution of non-stem cells in mutant production. Our work provides a hypothesis to explain the observation that in mammalian cells, symmetric patterns of stem cell division seem to be very common.     

Beta-catenin asymmetry is regulated by PLA1 and retrograde traffic in C. elegans stem cell divisions

Asymmetric division is an important property of stem cells. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the Wnt/beta-catenin asymmetry pathway determines the polarity of most asymmetric divisions. The Wnt signalling components such as beta-catenin localize asymmetrically to the cortex of mother cells to produce two distinct daughter cells. However, the molecular mechanism to polarize them remains to be elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that intracellular phospholipase A(1) (PLA(1)), a poorly characterized lipid-metabolizing enzyme, controls the subcellular localizations of beta-catenin in the terminal asymmetric divisions of epithelial stem cells (seam cells). In mutants of ipla-1, a single C. elegans PLA(1) gene, cortical beta-catenin is delocalized and the asymmetry of cell-fate specification is disrupted in the asymmetric divisions. ipla-1 mutant phenotypes are rescued by expression of ipla-1 in seam cells in a catalytic activity-dependent manner. Furthermore, our genetic screen utilizing ipla-1 mutants reveals that reduction of endosome-to-Golgi retrograde transport in seam cells restores normal subcellular localization of beta-catenin to ipla-1 mutants. We propose that membrane trafficking regulated by ipla-1 provides a mechanism to control the cortical asymmetry of beta-catenin.     

Regulating the balance between symmetric and asymmetric stem cell division in the developing brain

Stem cells proliferate through symmetric division or self-renew through asymmetric division whilst generating differentiating cell types. The balance between symmetric and asymmetric division requires tight control to either expand a stem cell pool or to generate cell diversity. In the Drosophila optic lobe, symmetrically dividing neuroepithelial cells transform into asymmetrically dividing neuroblasts. The switch from neuroepithelial cells to neuroblasts is triggered by a proneural wave that sweeps across the neuroepithelium. Here we review recent findings showing that the orchestrated action of the Notch, EGFR, Fat-Hippo, and JAK/STAT signalling pathways controls the progression of the proneural wave and the sequential transition from symmetric to asymmetric division. The neuroepithelial to neuroblast transition in the optic lobe bears many similarities to the switch from neuroepithelial cell to radial glial cell in the developing mammalian cerebral cortex. The Notch signalling pathway has a similar role in the transition from proliferating to differentiating stem cell pools in the developing vertebrate retina and in the neural tube. Therefore, findings in the Drosophila optic lobe provide insights into the transitions between proliferative and differentiative division in the stem cell pools of higher organisms.     

Regulating the balance between symmetric and asymmetric stem cell division in the developing brain

Stem cells proliferate through symmetric division or self-renew through asymmetric division whilst generating differentiating cell types. The balance between symmetric and asymmetric division requires tight control to either expand a stem cell pool or to generate cell diversity. In the Drosophila optic lobe, symmetrically dividing neuroepithelial cells transform into asymmetrically dividing neuroblasts. The switch from neuroepithelial cells to neuroblasts is triggered by a proneural wave that sweeps across the neuroepithelium. Here we review recent findings showing that the orchestrated action of the Notch, EGFR, Fat-Hippo, and JAK/STAT signalling pathways controls the progression of the proneural wave and the sequential transition from symmetric to asymmetric division. The neuroepithelial to neuroblast transition in the optic lobe bears many similarities to the switch from neuroepithelial cell to radial glial cell in the developing mammalian cerebral cortex. The Notch signalling pathway has a similar role in the transition from proliferating to differentiating stem cell pools in the developing vertebrate retina and in the neural tube. Therefore, findings in the Drosophila optic lobe provide insights into the transitions between proliferative and differentiative division in the stem cell pools of higher organisms.     

Symmetric and asymmetric cell division in rat corneal epithelium

Mitotic cells in normal, mature rat corneal epithelium were examined with a light microscope on serial, semi-thick plastic sections. Classification of mitotic figures into horizontally, obliquely or vertically positioned with reference to the epithelial basal lamina has shown that no single configuration predominates. A striking correlation between the position of the daughter cells after cytokinesis and their morphology has been observed. Horizontal cytokinetic pairs were morphologically symmetric but vertical ones were asymmetric, displaying distinct differences between daughter cells. Analysis of earlier mitotic phases has shown that the asymmetry could also be observed in vertical anaphases and telophases. The data provide clear morphological evidence for real asymmetric (unequal) cell division in a replacing epithelium in an adult mammal. It is concluded that asymmetric cell division in the corneal epithelium coexists with, and is as frequent as symmetric (equal) cell division. Randomness of mitotic spindle positioning implies that diverse forms of cell transfer from the proliferative into the differentiative epithelial compartments must operate. Therefore, the universality of the general model of cell renewal in stratified epithelia, which assumes a strong predominance of horizontal mitoses, exclusively equal mitotic divisions and one form of cell transfer, is questioned.     

Regulation of asymmetric cell division in the epidermis

For proper tissue morphogenesis, cell divisions and cell fate decisions must be tightly and coordinately regulated. One elegant way to accomplish this is to couple them with asymmetric cell divisions. Progenitor cells in the developing epidermis undergo both symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions to balance surface area growth with the generation of differentiated cell layers. Here we review the molecular machinery implicated in controlling asymmetric cell division. In addition, we discuss the ability of epidermal progenitors to choose between symmetric and asymmetric divisions and the key regulatory points that control this decision.     

Fly meets yeast: checking the correct orientation of cell division

Cell division is generally thought to be a process that produces an exact copy of the mother cell by precisely replicating its genomic DNA, doubling organelles, and segregating them into two cells. Many cell types from bacteria to human cells divide asymmetrically, however, to generate daughter cells with distinct characteristics. Such asymmetric divisions are fundamental to the lifespan of a cell, to embryonic development, and to stem cell homeostasis. Asymmetric division requires coordination of cellular asymmetry and the cell division machinery. Accumulating evidence suggests that the basic molecular mechanisms that govern this process are conserved from yeast to humans. In this review we highlight similarities in the mechanisms of asymmetric cell division in yeast and Drosophila male germline stem cells (GSCs) in the hope of extracting common themes underlying several systems.     

干细胞不对称分裂模式与肿瘤发生

干细胞发育中存在对称/不对称两种方式的交替分裂,精确调控维持正常发育。相关调控因素有外源性机制和内源性机制,发现于基本模式生物果蝇,主要包括干细胞周围微环境、细胞极性、纺锤体轴向和命运决定子不对称分布。调控机制的失常将导致干细胞分裂模式紊乱,可能造成肿瘤发生。简要综述了相关研究进展。     

Cancer stem cell, niche and EGFR decide tumor development and treatment response: A bio-computational simulation study

Recent research in cancer biology has suggested the hypothesis that tumors are initiated and driven by a small group of cancer stem cells (CSCs). Furthermore, cancer stem cell niches have been found to be essential in determining fates of CSCs, and several signaling pathways have been proven to play a crucial role in cellular behavior, which could be two important factors in cancer development. To better understand the progression, heterogeneity and treatment response of breast cancer, especially in the context of CSCs, we propose a mathematical model based on the cell compartment method. In this model, three compartments of cellular subpopulations are constructed: CSCs, progenitor cells (PCs), and terminal differentiated cells (TCs). Moreover, (1) the cancer stem cell niche is, considered by modeling its effect on division patterns (symmetric or asymmetric) of CSCs, and (2) the EGFR signaling pathway is integrated by modeling its role in cell proliferation, apoptosis. Our simulation results indicate that (1) a higher probability for symmetric division of CSC may result in a faster expansion of tumor population, and for a larger number of niches, the tumor grows at a slower rate, but the final tumor volume is larger; (2) higher EGFR expression correlates to tumors with larger volumes while a saturation function is observed, and (3) treatments that inhibit tyrosine kinase activity of EGFR may not only repress the tumor volume, but also decrease the CSCs percentages by shifting CSCs from symmetric divisions to asymmetric divisions. These findings suggest that therapies should be designed to effectively control or eliminate the symmetric division of CSCs and to reduce or destroy the CSC niches.     

Neurogenesis and asymmetric cell division

The astonishing cellular diversity in the central nervous system (CNS) arises from neural progenitors which can undergo different modes of symmetric and asymmetric divisions to self-renew as well as produce differentiated neuronal and glial progeny. Drosophila CNS neural progenitor cells, neuroblasts, have been utilised as a model to stimulate the understanding of the processes of asymmetric division, generation of neuronal lineages and, more recently, stem cell biology in vertebrates. Here we review some recent developments involving Drosophila and mammalian neural progenitor cells, highlighting some similarities and differences in the mechanisms that regulate their divisions during neurogenesis.