COMPARISON OF ATTRIBUTE LIKING AND JAR SCALES TO EVALUATE THE ADEQUACY OF SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF MILK DESSERTS

Just-about-right (JAR) scales and attribute liking questions are usually used to study consumer perception of the sensory characteristics of food products. The aim of the present work was to compare the performance of attribute liking and JAR scales to evaluate consumers' perceived adequacy of flavor and texture of milk puddings. Two groups of consumers were asked to evaluate eight milk desserts using (1) overall liking followed by attribute liking for texture and flavor and (2) overall liking followed by JAR scales for thickness, creaminess, sweetness and vanilla flavor. Overall liking scores were significantly different when JAR scales or attribute liking questions were considered. Texture, flavor and overall liking scores were highly correlated to each other, providing the same information. JAR scales correlated better with the intensity of sensory attributes evaluated by a trained sensory panel, being JAR percentages a reliable tool to study the adequacy of sensory attributes.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Results from the present work showed that consumers might not be able to independently evaluate their liking of different sensory attributes of a product. For this reason, the use of attribute liking questions for studying the adequacy of sensory attributes in complex products would not be recommended. JAR scales were better indicators of the adequacy of sensory attributes. Consumers were able to independently evaluate texture and flavor attributes using JAR scales. However, the influence of JAR scales on overall liking scores should be taken into account when including these scales on consumer studies.     

WHAT SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS DRIVE PRODUCT QUALITY? AN ASSESSMENT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Consumers differ dramatically in their sensory preferences for products. This paper assesses the relative importance of appearance, taste/flavor and texture as characteristics that drive acceptance for a complex pie product. The paper classifies consumers as being driven by one or more sensory attributes in their judgment of product quality. To do so, each consumer's liking rating is regressed against each separate attribute liking. The coefficient (M) of the linear equation "Overall Liking = M (Attribute Liking) + B" measures the relative importance of the sensory attribute as a driver of overall quality.     

Identifying Breeding Priorities for Blueberry Flavor Using Biochemical,Sensory, and Genotype by Environment Analyses

Breeding for a subjective goal such as flavor is challenging, as many blueberry cultivars are grown worldwide, and identifying breeding targets relating to blueberry flavor biochemistry that have a high degree of genetic control and low environmental variability are priorities. A variety of biochemical compounds and physical characters induce the sensory responses of taste, olfaction, and somatosensation, all of which interact to create what is perceived flavor. The goal of this study was to identify the flavor compounds with a larger genetic versus environmental component regulating their expression over an array of cultivars, locations, and years. Over the course of three years, consumer panelists rated overall liking, texture, sweetness, sourness, and flavor intensity of 19 southern highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum hybrids) genotypes in 30 sensory panels. Significant positive correlations to overall liking of blueberry fruit (P<0.001) were found with sweetness (R² = 0.70), texture (R² = 0.68), and flavor (R² = 0.63). Sourness had a significantly negative relationship with overall liking (R² = 0.55). The relationship between flavor and texture liking was also linear (R² = 0.73, P<0.0001) demonstrating interaction between olfaction and somatosensation. Partial least squares analysis was used to identify sugars, acids, and volatile compounds contributing to liking and sensory intensities, and revealed strong effects of fructose, pH, and several volatile compounds upon all sensory parameters measured. To assess the feasibility of breeding for flavor components, a three year study was conducted to compare genetic and environmental influences on flavor biochemistry. Panelists could discern genotypic variation in blueberry sensory components, and many of the compounds affecting consumer favor of blueberries, such as fructose, pH, β-caryophyllene oxide and 2-heptanone, were sufficiently genetically controlled that allocating resources for their breeding is worthwhile.     

Salivary Composition Is Associated with Liking and Usual Nutrient Intake

Salivary flow and composition have an impact on flavor perception. However, very few studies have explored the relationship between saliva, individual liking and usual dietary intake. The aim of our study was to evaluate the association of salivary flow and composition with both a liking for fat, saltiness and sweetness and the usual nutrient intake in an adult French population. Liking for fat, saltiness, and sweetness were inferred from liking scores obtained during hedonic tests on 32 food products among 282 French adults participating in the Nutrinet-Santé Study. Before assessing liking, resting saliva was collected. Standard biochemical analyses were performed to assess specific component concentrations and enzymatic activities. Dietary data were collected using three web-based 24h records. Relationships between salivary flow and composition, sensory liking and nutrient intake were assessed using linear regression. Total antioxidant capacity was positively associated with simple carbohydrate intake (β = 31.3, 95% CI = 1.58; 60.99) and inversely related to complex carbohydrate consumption (β = -52.4, 95% CI = -87.51; -19.71). Amylolysis was positively associated with both total (β = 0.20, 95% CI = 0.01; 0.38) and simple carbohydrate intake (β = 0.21, 95% CI = 0.01; 0.39). Salivary flow was positively associated with liking for fat (β = 0.14, 95% CI = 0.03; 0.25). Proteolysis was positively associated with liking for saltiness and for fat (β = 0.31, 95% CI = 0.02; 0.59; β = 0.28, 95% CI = 0.01; 0.56, respectively). Amylolysis was inversely associated with liking for sweetness (β = -10.13, 95% CI = -19.51; -0.75). Carbonic anhydrase 6 was inversely associated with liking for saltiness (β = -46.77, 95% CI = -86.24; -7.30). Saliva does not substantially vary according to a usual diet, except for carbohydrate intake, whereas the specific association between salivary flow/composition and sensory liking suggests the influence of saliva characteristics in food acceptance.     

IMPORTANCE OF SENSORY FACTORS IN PROCESSED SEAFOOD: METHODS AND RESULTS1

This paper considers “importance” of sensory attributes from the consumer point of view, with emphasis on processed seafood. There are three key measures of importance. Attitudinal importance measures what consumers think to be important and refers to general opinions about the category. Sensory system importance measures how strongly different sensory inputs (e.g., appearance, aroma, taste, texture) “drive” overall liking, and show the key sensory inputs to which consumers attend. Attribute level importance measures the relation between sensory intensity and overall liking for each attribute. It shows which specific attributes drive liking, how liking varies with the specific sensory attribute, and whether (and at what sensory level) there exists an optimal level.     

The chemical interactions underlying tomato flavor preferences

Although human perception of food flavors involves integration of multiple sensory inputs, the most salient sensations are taste and olfaction. Ortho- and retronasal olfaction are particularly crucial to flavor because they provide the qualitative diversity so important to identify safe versus dangerous foods. Historically, flavor research has prioritized aroma volatiles present at levels exceeding the orthonasally measured odor threshold, ignoring the variation in the rate at which odor intensities grow above threshold. Furthermore, the chemical composition of a food in itself tells us very little about whether or not that food will be liked. Clearly, alternative approaches are needed to elucidate flavor chemistry. Here we use targeted metabolomics and natural variation in flavor-associated sugars, acids, and aroma volatiles to evaluate the chemistry of tomato fruits, creating a predictive and testable model of liking. This nontraditional approach provides novel insights into flavor chemistry, the interactions between taste and retronasal olfaction, and a paradigm for enhancing liking of natural products. Some of the most abundant volatiles do not contribute to consumer liking, whereas other less abundant ones do. Aroma volatiles make contributions to perceived sweetness independent of sugar concentration, suggesting a novel way to increase perception of sweetness without adding sugar.     

SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS AND CONSUMER LIKING FOR CEREAL BAR SNACK FOODS

This study examined sensory aspects of cereal bar snacks for their relative importance to consumer perception and degree of like (DOL). Principal components analysis of conventional profiling data showed a distinct location of each bar type in multivariate space, separation being based on textural aspects for the hard crunchy bar and flavor dimensions (cereal, nutty versus chocolate. sweet, fruit) for others. A consumer panel ( n =56) examined a subset of the bars according to a balanced incomplete block design. Analysis of variance showed that the chewy, nutty and chocolate bars were liked most ( p <0.01) and this was linked to ideal levels of filling flavor and quantity, chewy and crunchy textures and sweetness. The majority of consumers ranked 'taste' as the most important characteristic influencing their purchase intent, followed by textural features, 'price' and 'appearance' . The 'healthy image' aspect was relatively less important. Analysis of the relationship between the sensory measures and DOL, using partial least squares regression, confirmed the above segregation of preference, with sensory aromas and flavors having most influence on consumer liking.     

PREFERENCE MAPPING OF TEXTURE OF DULCE DE LECHE

The texture of 12 commercial samples of dulce de leche was characterized by means of texture profile analysis. Two sensory manual texture attributes (hardness and ropiness) were evaluated by a panel of 11 trained assessors. A panel of 50 consumers evaluated the texture acceptability of the samples using a 9‐point structured scale. Consumers showed highly significant different degrees of liking for the texture of the evaluated samples of dulce de leche. Clusters identified with Pearson's correlation coefficient showed opposite preference patterns and provided more useful information regarding market segmentation than clusters identified with Euclidean distances. External preference mapping and partial least squares regression showed that hardness was a driver of liking for one segment of consumers, whereas for the other one it was a driver of disliking. When all the consumers were considered, external preference mapping indicated that the ideal texture of dulce de leche would be intermediate, showing the importance of identifying preference patterns and suggesting that data averaging in consumer preferences might affect information recovery, and may lead to wrong conclusions. Different preference mapping techniques were compared; it was found out that when the relationship between acceptability and texture attributes was not linear, external preference mapping showed the best results.     

THE IMPORTANCE OF CAFFEINE AS A FLAVOR COMPONENT IN BEVERAGES

Caffeine contributes to the flavor profiles of beverage and food products, and other bitter compounds, such as quinine, cannot replicate caffeine's bitterness. Research also has indicated caffeine's ability to enhance desirable tastes, such as sweetness and saltiness, in beverages by modifying neurological pathways. Caffeine may reduce potential " off-flavors" by solubilizing some compounds, while having little effect on other compounds considered important in beverage flavor profiles. Exposure to caffeine may enhance cognition and potentially heighten the capacity for smell and taste. Thus, use of caffeine in beverages may positively affect flavor profiles and the experience of beverage consumption.     

SENSORY PROFILES OF THE MOST COMMON SALMON PRODUCTS ON THE DANISH MARKET

The sensory profiles of the most common chilled and frozen salmon products available to consumers on the Danish market were studied. A sensory profiling was made on 12 salmon products varying in salmon species, origin, storage method and time. Samples stored in ice between 7 and 16 days, frozen for 1 month or stored in modified atmosphere for 5 days all had sensory profiles dominated by sea/seaweed odor, juicy and oily texture, fresh fish oil, and sweet and mushroom flavor. Marked differences in the sensory profiles of the frozen samples were found to correlate to differences in storage time. Frozen storage for 6 months resulted in firm texture, discolored appearance and rancid flavor. The samples stored in modified atmosphere for 7 days had a sensory profile with marked rancid and sour odor.     

SENSORY EVALUATION OF VANILLA-DAIRY DESSERTS BY REPERTORY GRID METHOD AND FREE CHOICE PROFILE

“Natillas” are semisolid dairy desserts widely consumed in Spain, with notable differences existing between commercial brands in their composition and sensory and physical properties. The repertory grid method, in conjunction with the free choice profile (FCP), was used to provide data on how consumers perceived eight commercial “natillas” samples. The most frequent terms used were: vanilla flavor, sweetness, consistency and liquid texture as described by 77, 67, 57 and 53% of the consumers, respectively. A three‐dimensional solution was chosen. Dimension 1 accounted for 27.23% of variance and separated the samples largely by yellow‐color intensity and consistency. Dimension 2 (15.88%) was mainly related to the visual attributes of texture, creaminess and different notes of flavor. The third dimension (11.34%) was related to structural‐texture attributes, orange‐yellow color and acid and artificial flavors. The assessors plot showed two clusters. Analysis of each group data revealed differences in their perception of sample variation, mainly regarding texture and color.     

EFFECTS OF A SLIGHT COLOR VARIATION ON CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE OF ORANGE JUICE

Three hundred and forty-two consumers participated in a study examining slight color variation in orange juice. Panelists evaluated two orange juice samples; unadulterd juice and the same juice with a slight green off-color. The color manipulation reduced consumer acceptance of the color of the adulterated sample but had little influence on ratings of flavor, sweetness or overall liking. Older panelists were more strongly influenced by the color manipulation and showed a clear preference for the flavor of the control sample as compared to the adulterated sample. These data suggest that color was important for the visual appeal of orange juice, but the color change alone was not sufficient to alter consumer acceptance of this product.     

FOCUSED DIFFERENCE TESTING FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORANGE JUICES MADE FROM ORANGE CONCENTRATE

Focused difference testing was applied to two orange juices prepared from frozen concentrate. Differences were noted between the juices for darkness of color, visual appearance of pulpiness, resistance to tongue movement, flavor by mouth, odor, overall taste and taste other than sweetness. The logic and approach of focused difference testing is discussed and contrasted with other sensory analytical techniques.     

CONSUMER PREFERENCE OF DULCE DE LECHE AMONG STUDENTS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Dulce de Leche is a dairy-based confectionary product virtually unknown outside Latin America. A 2⁴ factorial design was implemented to study the influence of sugar composition, type of neutralizer, cooking time and presence of vanilla essence on the preference of Dulce de Leche by UK university students. A fractional factorial pattern was used in sen'ing samples to assessors. Analysis of variance showed that the preferred levels were: 40% replacement of sucrose by glucose syrup, 100% sodium bicarbonate as neutralizer, and no vanilla essence. Cooking time did not significantly affect preference. Partial least squares regression was used to relate preference to sensory profile scores. The correlation was good for appearance and texture, not so for flavor and aftertaste. A mapping technique showed consumers to be uniformly grouped for appearance and texture, not so for flavor. Results from preference and general acceptability were encouraging in promoting this new dairy product in Great Britain.     

RESPONSE SURFACES OF SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS FOR REDUCED SODIUM CHLORIDE AND PHOSPHATE SALTS IN EMULSIFIED TURKEY SAUSAGES

Emulsified turkey sausages (ETS) were prepared using varying concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl; 1.5 to 2.0%), sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP, 0 to 0.5%), and sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP, 0 to 0.25%). The sensory characteristics (response variables) of saltiness, soapiness, and texture were evaluated using a trained taste panel. Response surface methodology was used to design and analyze this study. Over the levels of STPP and SAPP, saltiness increased as levels of NaCl were increased. When STPP and SAPP were evaluated in combination with NaCl, saltiness increased slightly as levels of STPP were increased; and saltiness decreased as levels of SAPP were decreased. Soapiness increased at low levels of NaCl (1.5%) as STPP increased. Texture firmness decreased as SAPP increased and STPP decreased at low levels of NaCl (1.5%). Results suggest that sensory perceptions in ETS products are a combination of NaCl, SAPP, and STPP mixtures.