Intraspecies variations of red cell enzymes and hemoglobin inMacaca irus

Blood samples ofMacaca irus imported from Cambodia and the Philippines were examined by starch gel electrophoresis for red cell acid phosphatase, phosphoglucomutase, and hemoglobin variations.Two different types, each showing two and three zones with acid phosphatase activity, were observed in 172 cynomolgus monkeys. Variant (less common) type was detected in only eight of 113 in the Cambodian group.Individual differences in the distribution of phosphoglucomutase isoenzymes were also found in the monkey samples. Five different types were distinguished in 145 samples examined, but no possible explanation for genetic control can be given for the observed patterns.In addition to the usual hemoglobin found in all the hemolysates, fastmigrating hemoglobin components were demonstrated in 36% of 172 samples. A striking difference in the distribution of the hemoglobin types was found between the Cambodian and the Philippine groups.The obtained results probably indicate the existence of strong geographical effects on protein polymorphisms in cynomolgus monkey.     

高黎贡山赧亢白眉长臂猿春季食物选择

2007年3月9日—4月28日,在高黎贡山赧亢跟踪观察白眉长臂猿(Hoolock hoolock)的春季食性及取食行为,将其行为分为食果、食果汁和食叶。采用瞬时扫描法记录白眉长臂猿的取食行为,取食的种类、部位和地点等。在其活动区域内,以取食树为中心设置20m×20m的利用样方和以随机方式设置同样大小的可利用样方各19个。在样方内收集与取食树及食物资源相关的6个因子的数据。统计食物种类和资源量、选择指数、取食点的选择性等。结果表明,赧亢白眉长臂猿春季取食的食物共10种,其中果实类植物3种,果汁类植物1种,嫩叶类植物6种。10种食物中,白眉长臂猿对印度木荷(Schima khasiana)的果实和缅甸木莲(Maglietia haokeri)的嫩叶呈弱选择,对其他8种食物资源均呈强选择。Mann-WhitneyU-检验结果表明,利用样方和可利用样方间的食物资源量及食物种类数均差异极显著,以利用样方的资源量大,每一样方食物种类较多。果实是赧亢白眉长臂猿春季的主要食物资源,而嫩叶是补充。呈强选择的食物并不一定是取食频次高的食物;反之,取食频次高的食物也不一定呈强选择。白眉长臂猿常选择易处理的果实和粗灰分含量少的嫩叶,且果实是它摄取水分的主要来源。白眉长臂猿通常选择食物资源和种类相对集中的区域取食,这可以减少动物因寻找食物所耗费的能量,同时获得多种食物,满足其生理对营养的需求。     

Extrapair paternity in golden-cheeked gibbons (Nomascus gabriellae) in the secondary lowland forest of Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam

We observed 18 groups of golden-cheeked gibbons (Nomascus gabriellae) in the secondary lowland forest in Cat Tien National Park from January 2004 to December 2005 to obtain information about the social organization of this little-studied species, in an area where the population is recovering through increased protection and forest regeneration. DNA from faecal samples of 10 infants and juveniles identified 1 case of extrapair paternity. DNA from faecal samples of 18 adults from three communities revealed the majority of adults sampled of both sexes to be related to adults in neighbouring territories. Overall, the indications are that in this empty habitat, gibbons appear to be able to establish territories adjacent to those of their kin.     

Visual preference in a human-reared agile gibbon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hylobates agilis</Emphasis>)

Visual preference was evaluated in a male agile gibbon. The subject was raised by humans immediately after birth, but lived with his biological family from one year of age. Visual preference was assessed using a free-choice task in which five or six photographs of different primate species, including humans, were presented on a touch-sensitive screen. The subject touched one of them. Food rewards were delivered irrespective of the subject’s responses. We prepared two types of stimulus sets. With set 1, the subject touched photographs of humans more frequently than those of other species, recalling previous findings in human-reared chimpanzees. With set 2, photographs of nine species of gibbons were presented. Chimpanzees touched photographs of white-handed gibbons more than those of other gibbon species. The gibbon subject initially touched photographs of agile gibbons more than white-handed gibbons, but after one and two years his choice patterns resembled the chimpanzees’. The results suggest that, as in chimpanzees, visual preferences of agile gibbons are not genetically programmed but develop through social experience during infancy.     

Predation on giant flying squirrels (Petaurista philippensis) by black crested gibbons (Nomascus concolor jingdongensis) at Mt. Wuliang, Yunnan, China

Predation on vertebrates is infrequent in gibbons. In a 14-month field study of the central Yunnan black crested gibbon (Nomascus concolor jingdongensis) at Mt. Wuliang, Yunnan, China, we observed gibbons attacking, killing and eating giant flying squirrels (Petaurista philippensis). During 845 h of observation on one study group, the gibbons attacked giant flying squirrels 11 times, and succeeded in 4 cases. Although all members of the group attempted to attack the squirrels, all four successful attacks were made by the same adult female. The victims were infants in three cases and a juvenile or sub-adult in one case. Black crested gibbons also attacked adult giant flying squirrels by grabbing their long tails and throwing them from the canopy, but they failed to catch or kill the prey in three cases observed. Passive meat sharing occurred in three out of four successful cases. Besides hunting giant flying squirrels, the black crested gibbons also ate eggs or chicks in two birds’ nests and one lizard.     

Hemoglobin variation in macaques

A total of 1,333 hemolysates obtained from six different species of macaques,M. fuscata, M. cyclopis, M. mulatta, M. speciosa, M. nemestrina, andM. irus, were examined by starch gel electrophoresis. Three major hemoglobins, tentatively designated S, F, and P, and one minor component were found among the samples, in which P and a minor component were observed only in some samples ofM. irus. The hemoglobin types observed and their incidence in each species agreed, on the whole, with results reported by earlier workers. However, in addition to marked differences among macaque species, there existed striking geographical differences in the distribution of hemoglobin components within the same species. The distribution of hemoglobin types observed among the species are presented, together with the results of the determination of hemoglobin concentration in a two-band type and those of the alkali-resistant pigment of the macaques.     

Human-type blood groups and Gm factors in gibbons (Hylobates)

Blood specimens from 69 gibbons (63Hylobates lar, 4Hylobates concolor, and 2Hylobates pileatus) were tested for human-type ABO, MN, and Rh blood groups. AmongH. lar, three phenotypes were noted in the ABO and MN blood groups respectively, but all fourH. concolor were grouped as AM. All group A gibbons were of subgroup A₁; subgroups A₂B and A₁₂B were observed at a low frequency in group AB gibbons. Le^b antigen was detected in about 30% of the red cell samples fromH. lar, but all the samples were negative for Le^a. All the gibbons tested had c(hr) antigen but no other Rh antigens (D, C, E, and e) in their red cells. Some selected blood samples fromH. lar were also tested for some other blood group antigens and for the Gm and Inv factors. The Jk^a antigen was detected in all the red cell samples tested, but the S, s, U, K, k, and Fy^a antigens were not. In the tests of plasma with anti-Gm (1),H. lar could be divided into two groups, i.e., Gm(1)^Gi and Gm(–1)^Gi; Gm(2), Gm(4), and Inv(1) were absent in the species.     

Genetic markers in the blood of three species of tamarins (Saguinus mystax, S. labiatus and S. oedipus)

Alkaline phosphatase (Alp), esterase-I (Es-I), esterase-II (Es-II), carbonic anhydrase (CA), cell esterase (cEs), esterase-D (Es-D), isocitrate dehydrogenase (ICD), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (PGD), tetrazolium oxidase (To), ceruloplasmin (Cp), Haptoglobin (Hp) and hemoglobin (Hb) in 58-75 samples of three species of tamarins (Saguinus mystax, S. labiatus and S. oedipus) were detected by means of horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. Two types (Es-I 1 and Es-I 2) for Es-I, four types (Es-II 1, Es-II 2, Es-II 3 and Es-II 2-3) for Es-II, three types (cEs 1, cEs 2 and cEs 1-2) for cEs, three types (PGD 1, PGD 2 and PGD 1-2) for PGD, two types (To 1 and To 2) for To, and three types (Hp 3, Hp 1-3 and Hp 2-3) for Hp were observed. However, Alp, CA, Es-D, ICD, MDH, Cp and Hb were monomorphic. In the S. mystax, no Es-II or PGD variants were observed. No Es-II variant was seen in the S. oedipus. Gene frequencies of cEs, PGD and Hb were biased in the three species. It is concluded that six polymorphic loci are useful as genetic markers for a species or individual.     

The antecedents of man the manipulator

Four individuals of each of ten Primates species were presented with a length of nylon rope and their manipulative responses recorded in detail. The 172 specific types of actions observed were consolidated into 69 generic categories and then further taxonomized into Primary actions, in which the rope was directly acted upon, of two types depending on whether the rope was grasped or not, and Secondary actions, in which the rope was manipulated with respect to objects, with two types depending upon whether the second object was a part of the body or part of the environment.The ten species tended to fall into two groups: (1) the lemurs, highly arboreal monkeys, and gibbons, and (2) a less arboreal monkey and the great apes. The latter group generally engaged in more different types of actions, more secondary actions, more intentional contacts, more action away from the body, more proximal body contact, and more species-unique actions.It was inferred from these and other data that the antecedents of Man were more object-interested and manipulative than the precursors of nonhuman Primates at comparable levels of brain size development.     

Linear enamel hypoplasia in gibbons (Hylobates lar carpenteri)

This study describes the expression of linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH), a sensitive dental indicator of physiological stress, in Thailand gibbons (Hylobates lar carpenteri). Previous studies of enamel hypoplasia in hominoids have focused on great apes, with little attention given to the expression of this stress indicator in gibbons. In that gibbons differ from both monkeys and great apes in numerous life history features, LEH expression in gibbons might be expected to show significant differences from both. In this study, 92 gibbon specimens from two sites in Thailand were compared with several samples of monkeys and great apes in their expression of LEH. The intertooth distribution of LEH in gibbons was compared to that of chimpanzees and rhesus monkeys. Gibbon populations from both sites exhibit LEH frequencies intermediate between those of the monkey samples, in which LEH prevalence is usually low, and those of the great ape samples, in which LEH prevalence is high. Gibbons differ significantly from monkeys, but not great apes, in the number of individuals whose teeth record multiple stress events. Multiple episodes of stress are rarely recorded in the teeth of monkeys, while multiple stress events occur with higher frequency in gibbons and great apes. Taxonomic variation in the duration of crown formation, the prominence and spacing of perikymata on dental crowns, life history features, and/or experience of physiological stress may explain these patterns. The intertooth distribution of LEH in gibbons is, for different reasons, unlike that of either chimpanzees or rhesus monkeys. The mandibular canines of gibbons have significantly more LEH than any of their other teeth. Aspects of crown morphology, perikymata prominence/spacing, enamel thickness, and crown formation spans are potential causes of taxonomic variation in the intertooth distribution of LEH.     

海南长臂猿破碎化生境中食物资源可利用性分析

食物种类及其可获得性是动物生存的基本条件,也是生境质量评价的重要指标。2013年1月至2014年7月,对海南长臂猿(Nomascus hainanus) C群生境内食源植物种类、数量、食物可获得性及主要取食植物的径级结构进行调查分析,共记录到64种食源植物(标记胸径≥5 cm的乔木1 484株)。海南长臂猿以高大粗壮的食源植物为主要采食对象。这些乔木型食源植物结果率超过50.0%的有15种,占C群全部乔木型采食植物种数的28.8%;结果率最高的是海南单籽暗罗(Monoon laui, 76.7%),最低的是鹅掌柴(Heptapleurum heptaphyllum, 9.6%)。18种长臂猿主食食源乔木中,白肉榕(Ficus vasculosa)、斜叶榕(Ficus tinctoria)等15种食源植物的植株呈增长型结构。南酸枣(Choerospondias axillaria)、二色波罗蜜(Artocarpus styracifolius)为稳定型结构,而桃榄(Pouteria annamensis)为衰退型结构。提示海南长臂猿食物供应植物仍处于年轻状态,但这些食源植物并非每年结果,...     

Neonatal weight in gibbons (Hylobates spp.)

Neonatal and birth weights of gibbons have mostly been reported for single individuals, and larger samples (n = 2–8) have apparently been published for only two species of gibbons (Hylobates lar and H. syndactylus). In addition, a critical examination of the few published neonatal weights of gibbons shows that several of them should not be used. Neonatal weights are here defined as weights taken on infants up to seven days old, whereas birth weights include only those taken on the day of birth. This paper presents neonatal weights for six representative species of gibbons (H. lar, H. leucogenys, H. moloch, H. muelleri, H. pileatus, H. syndactylus) and some of their hybrids. Most of our data stem from surviving animals that were subsequently hand-reared and include 80 infants, thus making the previously available dataset 5 times larger. Our neonatal weights fall roughly into three different classes: neonates of the lar group (about 390 g, n = 27), the concolor group (about 510 g, n = 7), and the siamang (about 540 g, n = 46). This grouping corresponds not only to taxonomic units within the hylobatids, but also to grouping of gibbons by adult body weight. No weight difference between males and females is evident in our sample, and hybrids of the lar group do not appear to differ in weight from pure species. True birth weights (i.e., weights recorded on the day of birth) are available for only a few individuals. These weights are, on average, 7% higher than neonatal weights, but the difference is not statistically significant. Additional samples of neonatal weights suggest that infants that die on the day of birth weigh, on average, 17% less, twins weigh 29% less, and infants born by Cesarean section weigh 19% more than our reference sample of neonates. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Habitat Characteristics of the Endangered Hoolock Gibbons of Bangladesh: The Role of Plant Species Richness

Hoolock gibbons ( Hoolock hoolock ) are endangered small apes occurring in Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, and south China. All known populations have undergone declines primarily due to habitat destruction or alteration. We examined the influence of area of natural forests, area of plantations, area of agricultural land and edible plant species richness on the hoolock gibbon numbers from 22 sites in Bangladesh using multiple regression analysis. Area of natural forests and plantations were not linked to hoolock gibbon numbers, whereas area of agricultural land and edible plant species richness were both significantly linked. Higher edible plant species richness was directly related to hoolock gibbon numbers, while the area of agricultural land was inversely related. This is the first quantitative study illustrating the importance of these two variables with hoolock gibbon numbers. We also analyzed the existing habitat characteristics in two of the largest hoolock gibbon populations in Bangladesh: Lawachara (42 individuals) and Kaptai (84 individuals). Trees in Lawachara were generally smaller compared to those in Kaptai. Artocarpus , Tectona , and Dipterocarpus were the three most important genera in both sites, although Artocarpus was more important in Lawachara. Each site also had an abundant variety of tree species utilized by hoolock gibbons for food. We discuss the current context of primate conservation in Bangladesh and suggest that the current conservation priority for gibbons in the country should be protection and improvement of habitat.     

Ecology and behavior of wild black-crested gibbons (Hylobates concolor) in China with a reconsideration of evidence for polygyny

The black-crested gibbon,Hylobates concolor, is one of the few species of gibbons that has not yet been the subject of a long term field study. Field observations in the Ai Lao and Wu Liang Mountains of Yunnan Province, China indicate that in this area the habitat and ecology of this species differ markedly from those of other gibbons that have been studied to date. These differences are correlated with some behavioral differences. In particular, these gibbons apparently have greater day ranges than other gibbons. It has also been suggested that this species lives in polygynous groups. To demonstrate this requires observation of groups with two or more females with young. Our own observations and those from other recent studies suggest that there are alternative explanations consistent with available data.     

The first finding of chromosome variations in wild-born western hoolock gibbons

Hoolock gibbons (genus Hoolock) are a group of very endangered primate species that belong to the small ape family (family Hylobatidae). The entire population that is distributed in the northeast and southeast of Bangladesh is estimated to include only around 350 individuals. A conservation program is thus necessary as soon as possible. Genetic markers are significant tools for planning such programs. In this study, we examined chromosomal characteristics of two western hoolock gibbons that were captured in a Bangladesh forest. During chromosome analysis, we encountered two chromosome variations that were observed for the first time in the wild-born western hoolock gibbons (Hoolock hoolock). The first one was a nonhomologous centromere position in chromosome 8 that was observed in the two examined individuals. The alteration was identical in the two individuals, which were examined by G-band and DAPI-band analyses. Chromosome paint analyses revealed that the difference in the centromere position was due to a single small pericentric inversion. The second variation was a heterozygous elongation in chromosome 9. Analysis by sequential techniques of fluorescence in situ hybridization with 18S rDNA and silver nitrate staining revealed a single and an inverted tandem duplication, respectively, of the nucleolus organizer region in two individuals. These chromosome variations provide useful information for the next steps to consider the evolution and conservation of the hoolock gibbon.     

几种害鼠血红蛋白型的研究

哺乳动物的蛋白质生化多态现象(biochemical polymorphism)是微观生态学和种群分子遗传学共同涉及的课题,国外已有多年的研究历史,积累了丰富的资料(Lush,1970)。产生多态性的原因,一般认为是自然因素选择平衡的结果(Hedrick等,1976)。     

Are Montane Forests Demographic Sinks for Bornean White‐bearded Gibbons Hylobates albibarbis?

I estimated habitat-specific population densities for a population of Bornean white-bearded gibbons Hylobates albibarbis inhabiting seven distinct forest types at Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Population densities in montane forests (0.44 individuals/km²) were almost ten times lower than those in the next best habitat (upland granite forest; 4.2 individuals/km²) and far lower than those in lowland forest types. Demographic data on 33 gibbon groups living across the seven forest types showed that reproduction was substantially depressed in montane forests compared to high-quality lowland habitats. A simple model suggests that montane forests are demographic sinks for gibbons at Gunung Palung. Follow-up data from observations of montane groups 5 yr after the initial observation period support this result. As high-quality lowland forests (source habitat for gibbons) are being disproportionately lost in and around Gunung Palung National Park due to illegal logging and conversion to oil palm plantations, an increasing percentage of the remaining forest in the park comprises sink habitat for gibbons. This result has disquieting implications for the long-term viability of gibbon populations at Gunung Palung. In addition, as montane forests are generally low-quality habitat for most rainforest vertebrates, and since lowland forests are being lost at alarming rates across the tropics, source-sink population dynamics similar to those I describe here may characterize populations of other tropical vertebrate species.     

Electrospray ionization mass spectrometric analysis of blood for differentiation of species

The National Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory is responsible for the determination of species of birds, reptiles, and mammals from the United States, as well as international species falling under the protection of CITES treaties. We have recently found electrospray ionization mass spectrometry to be an effective means of rapidly analyzing blood samples for species identification. Nearly 1000 individuals were analyzed which comprised 62 species represented by birds, mammals, and reptiles. Whole blood and dried blood samples were analyzed without purification to provide simultaneous molecular weights from the alpha- and beta-proteins present in each sample's hemoglobin. The combination of the two molecular weights for the hemoglobin proteins (i.e., alpha/beta-pairs) was used as species determining markers. In all, 133 distinctive alpha/beta-pairs were observed from the individuals analyzed. Despite the variability in the hemoglobins evaluated, 86% of these alpha/beta-pairs were found to be diagnostic for a particular species to the exclusion of all other species studied. No other single protein system studied by a single analytical technique can so effectively resolve species from a wide range of taxa as can the hemoglobin system when analyzed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.     

Effects of social status and stress on patterns of gastrointestinal parasitism in wild white‐handed gibbons (Hylobates lar)

Although gibbons (family Hylobatidae) are typically monogamous, polyandrous groups occur regularly. Stress associated with elevated intragroup competition among males in polyandrous groups may increase susceptibility to infectious disease. To better understand this interplay, as well as to provide the first comprehensive assessment of parasitism in free‐ranging gibbons, we characterized the richness of gastrointestinal parasites and examined their prevalence in males from 14 groups (10 pair‐living, 4 multi‐male) of white‐handed gibbons (Hylobates lar) at Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. From September 2008 to May 2009, 324 fecal samples were collected from 23 individually recognizable male gibbons and screened for gastrointestinal helminths and protozoa after isolation via fecal floatation, sedimentation, and immunofluorescent antibody detection. A total of 10 parasite species recovered, including seven nematodes, two protozoans, and one trematode. Parasite richness and species‐specific prevalence were examined relative to social organization (pair‐living vs. multi‐male), male status (primary vs. secondary), age (subadult, adult, senior), fecal glucocorticoid levels, and time of the year. No relationship was found between parasite richness and sociodemographic or physiological factors. Similarly, prevalence of infection with parasite species was not associated with the majority of sociodemographic factors; however, Ternidens sp. and Balantidium coli varied seasonally and Trichuris sp. decreased with increasing age. Moreover, observational data suggest that competition is low in this gibbon population, and our findings are consistent with those observations in that cooperative defense may offset stress and reduce susceptibility to infection. Am J Phys Anthropol 150:602–608, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Social behavior adaptations of gibbon (Hylobates lar) in a controlled environment

A population of six adolescent—adult gibbons (three males and three females) were observed in a controlled environment in order to assess any social behavior adaptations related to forced aggregation and to a physical environment which differed from the native habitat in that there were no predators, no food scarcity and the geographic range was limited to 1.5 acres. Data on location, size and composition of naturally formed social groupings revealed that certain gibbons avoided social contact with certain others. This observation is discussed in relation toChance's (1967) concept of “attention structure.” It is viewed as representative of a dominance hierarchy serving gibbons as a social behavior adaptation when forced to aggregate.