Fragile sites still breaking

Rare fragile sites on chromosomes are the archetypal dynamic mutations. They involve large expansions of the microsatellite CCG or AT-rich minisatellites. The mutation process is an increase in repeat-unit number from within a normal range, through a premutation range, up to full mutation where the fragile site is expressed. Full mutations can inactivate genes and are regions of genomic instability. Common fragile sites, in particular, might have a role in oncogenesis by facilitating gene inactivation through chromosomal deletion or amplification, but this requires further exploration. The mechanisms behind the changes that give rise to the cytogenetic manifestation of chromosomal fragility are now beginning to be understood.     

Fragile sites and spontaneous abortions.

In this report we present the cytogenetic findings of the expression of fragile sites in 10 couples with two or more spontaneous abortions. These findings were compared with the results in a control group of 15 subjects with two normal offsprings. Individuals of couples experiencing early fetal losses carry fragile sites with significant higher frequency, moreover this frequency is markedly influenced by the number of spontaneous abortions. Eight fragile sites were significantly more expressed in individuals with miscarriages than in the controls. These eight fragile sites correspond with cancer breakpoints or sites of oncogenes. Hypothesis on the role of oncogene mutations in spontaneous abortions is proposed, based on the results of the nonrandom distribution of fragile sites on human chromosomes.     

Fragile sites and structural rearrangements in cancer

Summary We retracted information from a computerized databank which contains the cytogenetic findings of 17,000 patients with leukemia and lymphoma. Cytogenetic data from patients with solid tumors were compiled from Dr. Mitelman's catalogue on Chromosome aberrations in cancer. We compared the observed distribution of breaks in chromosome bands involved in structural rearrangements with the random distribution of breaks generated by Monte Carlo simulation and showed that a majority but not all of the bands known to contain a fragile site are involved in structural aberrations in cancer and that some of them are associated with specific chromosome structural changes in specific types of cancer.     

Fragile sites,chromosome evolution,and human neoplasia

Summary In a study of the possible relationship between human fragile sites, chromosomal rearrangements related to neoplasia, and chromosome regions involved in evolutionary changes, we have found that 17 fragile sites related to cancer, 15 fragile sites not related to cancer, and 17 non-fragile regions also related to human malignancy correspond or are close to bands involved in rearrangements that have taken place during chromosomal evolution in primates.     

Fragile sites: breaking up over a slowdown

Common fragile sites are specific regions in the human genome that are particularly prone to genomic instability under conditions of replicative stress. Recent data suggest that these sites depend on the checkpoint kinase ATR to maintain their stability.     

Fragile sites induced by FUdR,caffeine, and aphidicolin

Summary The frequencies of common fragile sites (c-fra) induced in peripheral blood lymphocytes by fluorodeoxyuridine (FUdR), aphidicolin, or caffeine, in eight healthy controls were studied. There was a significantly higher frequency of breaks (P<0.05) in the latter two treatments than the former. Also, significant variation in total number of breaks was observed among the eight individuals within the three treatments. The relative frequency of a fragile site in relation to the total number of fragile sites in an individual rather than its expression in total cells was considered important. Use of a frequency of 4% or more of total fragile sites was proposed to eliminate apparent random breaks that were observed. Using these criteria, a total of 31 c-fra were observed in the three treatments. The distribution of the fragile sites was different in FUdR-treated cells as opposed to caffeine- and aphidicolin-treated cells. Sites 3p14 and 16q23 and Xp22 were the three most frequently observed c-fra. The higher frequency of expression of some fragile sites in normal controls, as observed here, suggests that any relationship between fragile sites and neoplastic transformation has to be carefully evaluated. A classification based on frequency in the population, rather than mode of induction, is suggested.     

Fragile sites and breakpoints in constitutional rearrangements and in human sperm chromosomes

Summary Recently, it has been suggested that an association exists between breakpoints involved in constitutional rearrangements and fragile sites; however, statistical analyses of this relationship are controversial. We have analyzed 1200 breakpoint from different constitutional rearrangements, 1522 breakpoints with respect to their recurrence and 217 breakpoints from sperm chromosomes as reported by several authors. The coincidence between breakpoints and fragile sites was 35.3%, 43.6% and 41.9% respectively. The statistical significance of these coincidences depends on whether factors such as the relative length of the bands or the recurrence of the rearrangements are taken into account.     

Fragile x syndrome

Recent data from a national survey highlighted a significant difference in obesity rates in young fragile X males (31%) compared to age matched controls (18%). Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common cause of intellectual disability in males and the most common single gene cause of autism. This X-linked disorder is caused by an expansion of a trinucleotide CGG repeat (>200) on the promotor region of the fragile X mental retardation 1 gene (FMR1). As a result, the promotor region often becomes methylated which leads to a deficiency or absence of the FMR1 protein (FMRP). Common characteristics of FXS include mild to severe cognitive impairments in males but less severe cognitive impairment in females. Physical features of FXS include an elongated face, prominent ears, and post-pubertal macroorchidism. Severe obesity in full mutation males is often associated with the Prader-Willi phenotype (PWP) which includes hyperphagia, lack of satiation after meals, and hypogonadism or delayed puberty; however, there is no deletion at 15q11-q13 nor uniparental maternal disomy. Herein, we discuss the molecular mechanisms leading to FXS and the Prader-Willi phenotype with an emphasis on mouse FMR1 knockout studies that have shown the reversal of weight increase through mGluR antagonists. Finally, we review the current medications used in treatment of FXS including the atypical antipsychotics that can lead to weight gain and the research regarding the use of targeted treatments in FXS that will hopefully have a significantly beneficial effect on cognition and behavior without weight gain.     

非编码RNA与X脆性综合征

X脆性综合征（fragile X syndrome,FXS）是由X脆性智力低下1（FMR1）基因5＇端非翻译区CGG重复序列的异常扩增,导致X脆性智力低下蛋白（FMRP）缺失引起的.非编码RNA是除编码蛋白质的mRNAs以外的其他所有RNA分子,已被发现在中枢神经系统中具有重要的作用,如微RNA与BC1/BC200 RNA参与了X脆性智力低下蛋白的翻译抑制.认识非编码RNA与X脆性综合征的关系不但能加深对X脆性综合征的分子机制的理解,而且有助于揭示学习与记忆的奥秘.     

Fragile X expression and X inactivation

Summary The major concept of fragile X pathogenesis postulates that the fragile site at band Xq27.3 [fra(X)] represents the primary defect. The expression of fra(X) is predicted to be an intrinsic property of the mutated chromosome and, hence, should not be suppressed by X inactivation in females or induced by X-linked trans-acting factors. We made fibroblast clones of a fra(X)-positive female. Monoclonality was demonstrated using the DNA methylation assay at DXS255. The mutated X chromosomes and their states of genetic activity in the different clones were also defined by molecular methods. Five clones were selected to induce expression of fra(X) by 10^-7 M FUdR; two carried an active mutated X chromosome, in the other three the mutated X chromosome was inactivated. Fra(X) was found expressed in both types of clones. The percentages of positive cells were as high as 7–10%, regardless of the genetic activity of the mutated X chromosomes. DNA replicating patterns, obtained by BUdR labelling, demonstrated that expression occurred only on the mutated X chromosomes previously identified by molecular methods. The concept that the fragile site represents the primary mutation is now strongly supported by experimental evidence. The expression of fra (X) in females is independent of X inactivation and other trans-acting factors.     

Fragile X chromosome and chromosome condensation

The effect of chromosome condensation on the frequency of expression of the fragile X chromosome was examined. Chromosome decondensation substances were tested for their ability to elicit expression or improve frequencies of expression of the fragile X chromosome in five patients. The substances tested included the AT specific DNA ligands ethidium bromide, Hoechst 33258, and netropsin, and the GC specific substances actinomycin D and olivomycin. Under culture conditions appropriate for eliciting fragile X expression none of the decondensation compounds studied significantly altered frequencies of expression, nor did any of the substances elicit fragile X expression under conditions that normally suppress fragile X expression. The fragile X was found to be more frequently evident in less condensed chromosome preparations from fibroblasts. The implications of these findings with respect to the nature of fragile sites are discussed.     

Fragile sites and chromosome instability: the distribution of breaks induced by cis-diamine-clichloro-platinum (II) in Fanconi anemia lymphocyte cultures

Summary The distribution of chromosome breaks induced by the antitumor drug cis-diamine-dichloroplatinum (II) in lymphocyte cultures from Fanconi anemia patients was analyzed. Breakpoints occurred nonrandomly over an arbitrarily defined human karyotype of 319 bands. These bands were classified according to either their banding pattern or their fragile site status (whether or not a fragile site of a given type is located at a chromosomal band). A significant involvement of G-light and fragile site bands was detected. The preferential occurrence of breaks at fragile site bands was limited to common fragile site bands (essentially of the aphidicolin-type).     

Fragile X syndrome and the amygdala

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most commonly inherited form of mental impairment and autism. Current understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying FXS symptoms is derived mainly from studies on the hippocampus and cortex. However, FXS is also associated with strong emotional symptoms, which are likely to involve changes in the amygdala. Unfortunately, the synaptic basis of amygdalar dysfunction in FXS remains largely unexplored. Here we describe recent findings from mouse models of FXS that have identified synaptic defects in the basolateral amygdala that are in many respects distinct from those reported earlier in the hippocampus. Long-term potentiation and surface expression of AMPA-receptors are impaired. Further, presynaptic defects are seen at both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Remarkably, some of these synaptic defects in the amygdala are also amenable to pharmacological rescue. These results also underscore the need to modify the current hippocampus-centric framework to better explain FXS-related synaptic dysfunction in the amygdala.