Drivers of Bushmeat Hunting and Perceptions of Zoonoses in Nigerian Hunting Communities

Bushmeat hunting threatens biodiversity and increases the risk of zoonotic pathogen transmission. Nevertheless, limited information exists on patterns of contact with wildlife in communities that practice bushmeat hunting, especially with respect to social drivers of hunting behavior. We used interview responses from hunters and non-hunters in rural hunting communities in Nigeria to: 1) quantify contact rates with wildlife, 2) identify specific hunting behaviors that increase frequency of contact, 3) identify socioeconomic factors that predispose individuals to hunt, and 4) measure perceptions of risk. Participants engaged in a variety of behaviors that increased contact with wild animals, including: butchering to sell (37%), being injured (14%), using body parts for traditional medicine (19%), collecting carcasses found in forests and/or farms (18%), and keeping as pets (16%). Hunters came into contact with wildlife significantly more than non-hunters, even through non-hunting exposure pathways. Participants reported hunting rodents (95%), ungulates (93%), carnivores (93%), primates (87%), and bats (42%), among other prey. Reported hunting frequencies within taxonomic groups of prey were different for different hunting behaviors. Young age, lower education level, larger household size, having a father who hunts, and cultural group were all associated with becoming a hunter. Fifty-five percent of respondents were aware that they could contract diseases from wild animals, but only 26% of these individuals reported taking protective measures. Overall, hunters in this setting frequently contact a diversity of prey in risky ways, and the decision to become a hunter stems from family tradition, modified by economic necessity. Conservation and public health interventions in such settings may be most efficient when they capitalize on local knowledge and target root socio-economic and cultural drivers that lead to hunting behavior. Importantly, interventions that target consumption alone will not be sufficient; other drivers and modes of interaction with wildlife must also be considered.     

Health Risk Assessment and Urinary Excretion of Children Exposed to Arsenic through Drinking Water and Soils in Sonora,Mexico

Biological Trace Element Research - Environmental arsenic exposure is associated with increased risk of non-cancerous chronic diseases and a variety of cancers in humans. The aims of this study...     

Predicting the Magnitude and Spatial Distribution of Potentially Exposed Populations during IND or RDD Terrorism Incidents

Rapid delineation of the population potentially at risk from terrorist incidents involving an Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) or Radiological Dispersion Device (RDD) is necessary for effective medical response and incident management as part of the recovery process. The spatial interaction modeling framework presented estimates population magnitude and distribution at a geographical scale relevant for accurately estimating risk isopleths moving away from the detonation point for a 10KT IND and a 3.7 × 10¹³ Bq ²⁴¹Am RDD. The methodology is applied to a set of illustrative release scenarios with varying meteorological parameters for wind speed, wind direction, and atmospheric stability. The analytical framework allocates population data for a representative urban area (≈1M people; 40 × 40 km area) within potential effects zones on a spatial basis for daytime and nighttime release scenarios.     

Risk of Deaths,AIDS-Defining and Non-AIDS Defining Events among Ghanaians on Long-Term Combination Antiretroviral Therapy

Combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) has been widely available in Ghana since 2004. The aim of this cohort study was to assess the incidences of death, AIDS-defining events and non-AIDS defining events and associated risk factors amongst patients initiating cART in a large treatment centre. Clinical and laboratory data were extracted from clinic and hospital case notes for patients initiating cART between 2004 and 2010 and clinical events graded according to recognised definitions for AIDS, non-AIDS events (NADE) and death, with additional events not included in such definitions such as malaria also included. The cumulative incidence of events was calculated using Kaplan Meier analysis, and association of risk factors with events by Cox proportional hazards regression. Data were closed for analysis on 31^st December, 2011 after a median follow-up of 30 months (range, 0–90 months). Amongst 4,039 patients starting cART at a median CD4 count of 133 cells/mm³, there were 324 (8%) confirmed deaths, with an event rate of 28.83 (95% CI 25.78–32.15) deaths per 1000-person follow-up years; the commonest established causes were pulmonary TB and gastroenteritis. There were 681 AIDS-defining events (60.60 [56.14–65.33] per 1000 person years) with pulmonary TB and chronic diarrhoea being the most frequent causes. Forty-one NADEs were recorded (3.64 [2.61–4.95] per 1000 person years), of which hepatic and cardiovascular events were most common. Other common events recorded outside these definitions included malaria (746 events) and respiratory tract infections (666 events). Overall 24% of patients were lost-to-follow-up. Alongside expected risk factors, stavudine use was associated with AIDS [adjusted HR of 1.08 (0.90–1.30)] and death (adjusted HR of 1.60 [1.21–2.11]). Whilst frequency of AIDS and deaths in this cohort were similar to those described in other sub-Saharan African cohorts, rates of NADEs were lower and far exceeded by events such as malaria and respiratory tract infections.     

Characteristics of the Integrated Electromyogram in Individuals Exposed to Long-Term Vibration

The functional state of the forearm muscles in individuals exposed to long-term vibration (dressers with a duration of current employment of 7–15 years, n = 12) was assessed using turn–amplitude analysis of the integrated surface electromyogram (EMG), the nerve conduction velocity test, and the conventional motor unit action potential electromyographic test. A significant increase in the EMG amplitude and the number of turns upon graded effort, as well as a decrease in the maximal ratio of the number of turns to the average amplitude of the electromyogram from the right m. flexor carpi radialis of the dressers, was revealed, which is indicative of secondary muscular disorders connected with the specific features of the occupational movement pattern and long-term exposure to vibration.     

Zoonotic Disease Risk and the Bushmeat Trade: Assessing Awareness Among Hunters and Traders in Sierra Leone

The bushmeat industry has been a topic of increasing importance among both conservationists and public health officials for its influence on zoonotic disease transmission and animal conservation. While the association between infectious diseases and the bushmeat trade is well established in the research community, risk perception among bushmeat hunters and traders has not been well characterized. I conducted surveys of 123 bushmeat hunters and traders in rural Sierra Leone to investigate hunting practices and awareness of zoonotic disease risk associated with the bushmeat trade. Twenty-four percent of bushmeat hunters and traders reported knowledge of disease transmission from animals to humans. Formal education did not significantly affect awareness of zoonotic disease transmission. Individuals who engaged exclusively in preparation and trading of bushmeat were more likely to accidentally cut themselves compared to those who primarily engaged in bushmeat hunting (P < 0.001). In addition, women involved in the bushmeat trade were at greater risk of exposing themselves to potential zoonotic pathogens through accidental self-cutting compared to men (P < 0.01). This study collected preliminary information on risk perception among bushmeat hunters that could guide the creation of a future public health-based education program to minimize zoonotic disease transmission risk among vulnerable communities.     

Electromyographic Characteristics of Muscle Fatigue in Parkinsonian Patients Exposed to General Heating

Surface electromyography and turn–amplitude analysis were used to study muscle fatigue after exposure to heating (40°C, 60 min) and under thermoneutral conditions (22°C) in 12 parkinsonian patients from 57 to 65 years of age treated with Nacom, Bromocryptin, and Cyclodol. In the patients, heating caused a twofold increase in the motor performance (number of contractions until exhaustion and nerve conduction velocity) and a decrease in the mean electromyogram (EMG) amplitude and number of turns of spontaneous muscle activity. The spontaneous EMG activity was fully inhibited after exposure to heating and fatigue, suggesting a thermoregulatory dependence of the spontaneous muscle tone (rigidity) in parkinsonian patients. After exposure to heating, fatigue also caused a decrease in the peak ratio with a shift of the mean EMG amplitude to lower values. After-load recovery of the mean EMG amplitude was slower under heating versus thermoneutral conditions and was compensated for by an increased number of turns.     

Ecology and Geography of Transmission of Two Bat-Borne Rabies Lineages in Chile

Rabies was known to humans as a disease thousands of years ago. In America, insectivorous bats are natural reservoirs of rabies virus. The bat species Tadarida brasiliensis and Lasiurus cinereus, with their respective, host-specific rabies virus variants AgV4 and AgV6, are the principal rabies reservoirs in Chile. However, little is known about the roles of bat species in the ecology and geographic distribution of the virus. This contribution aims to address a series of questions regarding the ecology of rabies transmission in Chile. Analyzing records from 1985–2011 at the Instituto de Salud Pública de Chile (ISP) and using ecological niche modeling, we address these questions to help in understanding rabies-bat ecological dynamics in South America. We found ecological niche identity between both hosts and both viral variants, indicating that niches of all actors in the system are undifferentiated, although the viruses do not necessarily occupy the full geographic distributions of their hosts. Bat species and rabies viruses share similar niches, and our models had significant predictive power even across unsampled regions; results thus suggest that outbreaks may occur under consistent, stable, and predictable circumstances.     

Risk of Potentially Rabid Animal Exposure among Foreign Travelers in Southeast Asia

Background

Each year millions of travelers visit Southeast Asia where rabies is still prevalent. This study aimed to assess the risk of rabies exposure, i.e., by being bitten or licked by an animal, among travelers in Southeast Asia. The secondary objective was to assess their attitudes and practices related to rabies.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Foreign travelers departing to the destination outside Southeast Asia were invited to fill out the study questionnaire in the departure hall of Bangkok International Airport. They were asked about their demographic profile, travel characteristics, pre-travel health preparations, their possible exposure and their practices related to rabies during this trip. From June 2010 to February 2011, 7,681 completed questionnaires were collected. Sixty-two percent of the travelers were male, and the median age was 32 years. 34.0% of the participants were from Western/Central Europe, while 32.1% were from East Asia. Up to 59.3% had sought health information before this trip. Travel clinics were the source of information for 23.6% of travelers. Overall, only 11.6% of the participants had completed their rabies pre-exposure prophylaxis, and 15.3% had received only 1–2 shots, while 73.1% had not been vaccinated at all. In this study, the risk of being bitten was 1.11 per 100 travelers per month and the risk of being licked was 3.12 per 100 travelers per month. Among those who were bitten, only 37.1% went to the hospital to get post exposure treatment. Travelers with East Asian nationalities and longer duration of stay were significantly related to higher risk of animal exposure. Reason for travel was not related to the risk of animal exposure.

Conclusions

Travelers were at risk of being exposed to potentially rabid animals while traveling in Southeast Asia. Many were inadequately informed and unprepared for this life-threatening risk. Rabies prevention advice should be included in every pre-travel visit.     

Genome-Wide Identification of Epigenetic Hotspots Potentially Related to Cardiovascular Risk in Adult Women after a Complicated Pregnancy

Background

The physiological demands of pregnancy on the maternal cardiovascular system can catapult women into a metabolic syndrome that predisposes to atherosclerosis in later life. We sought to identify the nature of the epigenomic changes associated with the increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in adult women following pre-eclampsia.

Findings

We assessed the genome wide epigenetic profile by methyl-C sequencing of monozygotic parous twin sister pairs discordant for a severe variant of pre-eclampsia. In the adult twin sisters at risk for CVD as a consequence of a complicated pregnancy, a set of 12 differentially methylated regions with at least 50% difference in methylation percentage and the same directional change was found to be shared between the affected twin sisters and significantly different compared to their unaffected monozygous sisters.

Conclusion

The current epigenetic marker set will permit targeted analysis of differentially methylated regions potentially related to CVD risk in large cohorts of adult women following complicated pregnancies.     

An NO Donor Approach to Neuroprotective and Procognitive Estrogen Therapy Overcomes Loss of NO Synthase Function and Potentially Thrombotic Risk

Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) are effective therapeutics that preserve favorable actions of estrogens on bone and act as antiestrogens in breast tissue, decreasing the risk of vertebral fractures and breast cancer, but their potential in neuroprotective and procognitive therapy is limited by: 1) an increased lifetime risk of thrombotic events; and 2) an attenuated response to estrogens with age, sometimes linked to endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) dysfunction. Herein, three 3^rd generation SERMs with similar high affinity for estrogen receptors (ERα, ERβ) were studied: desmethylarzoxifene (DMA), FDMA, and a novel NO-donating SERM (NO-DMA). Neuroprotection was studied in primary rat neurons exposed to oxygen glucose deprivation; reversal of cholinergic cognitive deficit was studied in mice in a behavioral model of memory; long term potentiation (LTP), underlying cognition, was measured in hippocampal slices from older 3×Tg Alzheimer''s transgenic mice; vasodilation was measured in rat aortic strips; and anticoagulant activity was compared. Pharmacologic blockade of GPR30 and NOS; denudation of endothelium; measurement of NO; and genetic knockout of eNOS were used to probe mechanism. Comparison of the three chemical probes indicates key roles for GPR30 and eNOS in mediating therapeutic activity. Procognitive, vasodilator and anticoagulant activities of DMA were found to be eNOS dependent, while neuroprotection and restoration of LTP were both shown to be dependent upon GPR30, a G-protein coupled receptor mediating estrogenic function. Finally, the observation that an NO-SERM shows enhanced vasodilation and anticoagulant activity, while retaining the positive attributes of SERMs even in the presence of NOS dysfunction, indicates a potential therapeutic approach without the increased risk of thrombotic events.     

Bushmeat and bycatch: the sum of the parts

In many developing countries, the killing of wild animals for commercial purposes (the bushmeat trade) is a significant factor in the reduction of biodiversity, and probably represents a major threat to the survival of many more populations than we know. This includes marine species such as cetaceans, sea turtles and sirenians ("marine bushmeat"), which are often neglected in the discussion of this issue. Estimating the impact of the bushmeat trade anywhere is problematic because even the most thorough visual surveys of meat markets cannot easily translate an observed quantity of butchered products into the number of animals killed. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Baker et al. provide a powerful new tool for such assessments: molecular identification of commercially available products from a depleted population of minke whales in South Korea is combined with genotyping and novel capture-recapture methods to estimate not only the number of individuals taken, but also the persistence of the resulting products in the marketplace.     

Associations between Potentially Modifiable Risk Factors and Alzheimer Disease: A Mendelian Randomization Study

Background

Potentially modifiable risk factors including obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and smoking are associated with Alzheimer disease (AD) and represent promising targets for intervention. However, the causality of these associations is unclear. We sought to assess the causal nature of these associations using Mendelian randomization (MR).

Methods and Findings

We used SNPs associated with each risk factor as instrumental variables in MR analyses. We considered type 2 diabetes (T2D, N _SNPs = 49), fasting glucose (N _SNPs = 36), insulin resistance (N _SNPs = 10), body mass index (BMI, N _SNPs = 32), total cholesterol (N _SNPs = 73), HDL-cholesterol (N _SNPs = 71), LDL-cholesterol (N _SNPs = 57), triglycerides (N _SNPs = 39), systolic blood pressure (SBP, N _SNPs = 24), smoking initiation (N _SNPs = 1), smoking quantity (N _SNPs = 3), university completion (N _SNPs = 2), and years of education (N _SNPs = 1). We calculated MR estimates of associations between each exposure and AD risk using an inverse-variance weighted approach, with summary statistics of SNP–AD associations from the International Genomics of Alzheimer’s Project, comprising a total of 17,008 individuals with AD and 37,154 cognitively normal elderly controls. We found that genetically predicted higher SBP was associated with lower AD risk (odds ratio [OR] per standard deviation [15.4 mm Hg] of SBP [95% CI]: 0.75 [0.62–0.91]; p = 3.4 × 10⁻³). Genetically predicted higher SBP was also associated with a higher probability of taking antihypertensive medication (p = 6.7 × 10⁻⁸). Genetically predicted smoking quantity was associated with lower AD risk (OR per ten cigarettes per day [95% CI]: 0.67 [0.51–0.89]; p = 6.5 × 10⁻³), although we were unable to stratify by smoking history; genetically predicted smoking initiation was not associated with AD risk (OR = 0.70 [0.37, 1.33]; p = 0.28). We saw no evidence of causal associations between glycemic traits, T2D, BMI, or educational attainment and risk of AD (all p > 0.1). Potential limitations of this study include the small proportion of intermediate trait variance explained by genetic variants and other implicit limitations of MR analyses.

Conclusions

Inherited lifetime exposure to higher SBP is associated with lower AD risk. These findings suggest that higher blood pressure—or some environmental exposure associated with higher blood pressure, such as use of antihypertensive medications—may reduce AD risk.     

The Effect of Wildlife Conservation on Local Perceptions of Risk and Behavioral Response

In this study, we examine the effect of Tarangire National Park (TNP) on local perceptions of risk and how these perceptions may influence behavioral responses. Data were collected during 2004–2005 through household surveys and participatory risk mapping (PRM) in eight villages east of TNP. By identifying and rank-ordering respondents’ perceived risks, PRM enhances understanding of the nature and variation of risks faced within a population by distinguishing between the incidence and severity of subjective risk perceptions. Results indicate that proximity to the park has a strong effect on the type and severity of perceived risks. Within villages close to the park, however, behavioral response to perceived risks varies considerably. This study contributes to an appreciation of how behavioral response to environmental and socioeconomic factors is mediated by human perception.

Using Participatory Risk Mapping (PRM) to Identify and Understand People's Perceptions of Crop Loss to Animals in Uganda

Considering how people perceive risks to their livelihoods from local wildlife is central to (i) understanding the impact of crop damage by animals on local people and (ii) recognising how this influences their interactions with, and attitudes towards, wildlife. Participatory risk mapping (PRM) is a simple, analytical tool that can be used to identify and classify risk within communities. Here we use it to explore local people''s perceptions of crop damage by wildlife and the animal species involved. Interviews (n = 93, n = 76) and seven focus groups were conducted in four villages around Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda during 2004 and 2005. Farms (N = 129) were simultaneously monitored for crop loss. Farmers identified damage by wildlife as the most significant risk to their crops; risk maps highlighted its anomalous status compared to other anticipated challenges to agricultural production. PRM was further used to explore farmers'' perceptions of animal species causing crop damage and the results of this analysis compared with measured crop losses. Baboons (Papio anubis) were considered the most problematic species locally but measurements of loss indicate this perceived severity was disproportionately high. In contrast goats (Capra hircus) were considered only a moderate risk, yet risk of damage by this species was significant. Surprisingly, for wild pigs (Potamochoerus sp), perceptions of severity were not as high as damage incurred might have predicted, although perceived incidence was greater than recorded frequency of damage events. PRM can assist researchers and practitioners to identify and explore perceptions of the risk of crop damage by wildlife. As this study highlights, simply quantifying crop loss does not determine issues that are important to local people nor the complex relationships between perceived risk factors. Furthermore, as PRM is easily transferable it may contribute to the identification and development of standardised approaches of mitigation across sites of negative human-wildlife interaction.     

Psychophysiological Performance Characteristics of Gas Production Operators Exposed to Natural Climatic Conditions of an Arid Zone

Systemic examination of gas production operators in the southeastern Kara Kum was carried out to reveal the physiological and psychological indices characteristic of different components of the human performance system and labor quality. It was found, in operators of two psychophysiological types, i.e., sensoricognitive and sensorimotor types, these indices varied seasonally (spring and summer) and depending on the working period during a shift. Adaptive changes were found not only in both physiological functions and psychophysiological performance pattern, but also in personality traits, including introversion and extroversion and the level of neuroticism. The empirical data are interpreted in the context of the ergonomic concept of the human performance system.     

Perceptions of Speed and Risk: Experimental Studies of Road Crossing by Older People

Crossing a road safely is a complex task requiring good sensorimotor function and integration of information about traffic speed, distances and one’s own speed. Poor judgement through age-related sensorimotor or cognitive impairment or a predisposition to take risks could lead to errors with serious consequences. On a simulated road, 85 participants (age ≥70 years) were asked to cross in front of an approaching car with a clearance as small as considered safe in two conditions; (1) with nothing else to attend to (free crossing) and (2) with an additional ball-gathering task while waiting to cross (task crossing). Participants were categorised according to their crossing outcome (failed to cross, ‘hit’, exact, safe, cautious). Participants also performed two sub-studies; (1) the perception of the time-to-arrival of moving objects and (2) the perception of own gait speed. Physical and cognitive function and everyday risk-taking behaviour were also assessed. In free crossing, clearances varied but no participants were “hit” by the car. In task crossing, participants allowed smaller clearances and 10% of participants would have been hit while 13% missed the opportunity to cross altogether. Across a wide range of physical and cognitive measures, including perceived and actual gait speed, a consistent pattern was observed in the task crossing condition. The exact group performed best, the ‘hit’, safe and cautious groups performed less well while those who missed the opportunity (fail) performed worst. The exact group reported taking the greatest risks in everyday life whereas the remaining groups reported being cautious. In conclusion, we found older people with poorer perceptual, physical and cognitive function made inappropriate and risky decisions in a divided attention road-crossing task despite self-reports of cautious behaviour in everyday life.     

宠物重要人兽共患细菌病流行现状及其控制策略

随着我国社会经济发展和城市化进程的加速,宠物数量日益增多,宠物人兽共患病发病率日渐增高,本文对我国宠物重要人兽共患细菌病流行状况、原因进行了阐述,并提出了防控对策。     

Potentially Functional Polymorphism in IL-23 Receptor and Risk of Acute Myeloid Leukemia in a Chinese Population

The interleukin-23 (IL-23) and its receptor (IL-23R) mediate the direct antitumor activities in human hematologic malignancies including pediatric acute leukemia. Two potentially functional genetic variants (IL-23R rs1884444 T>G and rs6682925 T>C) have been found to contribute to solid cancer susceptibility. In this study, we conducted a case-control study including 545 acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients and 1,146 cancer-free controls in a Chinese population to assess the association between these two SNPs and the risk of AML. We found that IL-23R rs1884444 TG/GG and rs6682925 TC/CC variant genotypes were associated with significantly increased risk of AML [rs1884444: adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 1.28, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.01–1.62; rs6682925: adjusted OR = 1.30, 95%CI = 1.01–1.67], compared to their corresponding wild-type homozygotes, respectively. These findings indicated that genetic variants in IL-23R may contribute to AML risk in our Chinese population.