Species diversity and genetic diversity: parallel processes and correlated patterns

Species diversity and genetic diversity may be correlated as a result of processes acting in parallel at the two levels. However, no theories predict the conditions under which different relationships between species diversity and genetic diversity might arise and therefore when one level of diversity may be predicted using the other. I used simulation models to investigate the parallel influence of locality area, immigration rate, and environmental heterogeneity on species diversity and genetic diversity. The most common pattern was moderate to strong positive species-genetic diversity correlations (SGDCs). Such correlations may be driven by any one of the three locality characteristics examined, but important exceptions and patterns emerged. Genetic diversity and species diversity were more weakly correlated when genetic diversity was measured for rare versus common species. Environmental heterogeneity not only imposes spatially varying selection on populations and communities but also causes changes in species' population sizes and therefore genetic diversity; these interacting processes can create positive, negative, or unimodal relationships of genetic diversity with species diversity. When species are considered as part of multispecies communities, predictions from single-species models of genetic diversity apply in some instances (effects of area and immigration) but often not in others (effects of environmental heterogeneity).     

Contrasting patterns and drivers of soil bacterial and fungal diversity across a mountain gradient

Microbial elevational diversity patterns have been extensively studied, but their shaping mechanisms remain to be explored. Here, we examined soil bacterial and fungal diversity and community compositions across a 3.4 km elevational gradient (consists of five elevations) on Mt. Kilimanjaro located in East Africa. Bacteria and fungi had different diversity patterns across this extensive mountain gradient—bacterial diversity had a U shaped pattern while fungal diversity monotonically decreased. Random forest analysis revealed that pH (12.61% importance) was the most important factor affecting bacterial diversity, whereas mean annual temperature (9.84% importance) had the largest impact on fungal diversity, which was consistent with results obtained from mixed-effects model. Meanwhile, the diversity patterns and drivers of those diversity patterns differ among taxonomic groups (phyla/classes) within bacterial or fungal communities. Taken together, our study demonstrated that bacterial and fungal diversity and community composition responded differently to climate and edaphic properties along an extensive mountain gradient, and suggests that the elevational diversity patterns across microbial groups are determined by distinct environmental variables. These findings enhanced our understanding of the formation and maintenance of microbial diversity along elevation, as well as microbial responses to climate change in montane ecosystems.     

Dendritic network structure and dispersal affect temporal dynamics of diversity and species persistence

Landscape connectivity structure, specifically the dendritic network structure of rivers, is expected to influence community diversity dynamics by altering dispersal patterns, and subsequently the unfolding of species interactions. However, previous comparative and experimental work on dendritic metacommunities has studied diversity mostly from an equilibrium perspective. Here we investigated the effect of dendritic versus linear network structure on local (α‐diversity), among (β‐diversity) and total (γ‐diversity) temporal species community diversity dynamics. Using a combination of microcosm experiments, which allowed for active dispersal of 14 protists and a rotifer species, and numerical analyses, we demonstrate the general importance of spatial network configuration and basic life history tradeoffs as driving factors of different diversity patterns in linear and dendritic systems. We experimentally found that community diversity patterns were shaped by the interaction of dispersal within the networks and local species interactions. Specifically, α‐diversity remained higher in dendritic networks over time, especially at highly connected sites. β‐diversity was initially greater in linear networks, due to increased dispersal limitation, but became more similar to β‐diversity in dendritic networks over time. Comparing the experimental results with a neutral metacommunity model we found that dispersal and network connectivity alone may, to a large extent, explain α‐ and β‐diversity dynamics. However, additional mechanisms, such as variation in carrying capacity and competition–colonization tradeoffs, were needed in the model to capture the detailed temporal diversity dynamics of the experiments, such as a general decline in γ‐diversity and long‐term dynamics in α‐diversity.     

菌根多样性及其对植物生长发育的重要意义

菌根多样性是生物多样性的重要组成部分。主要包括形态多样性、物种多样性和功能多样性．大量试验表明。菌根多样性对植物物种的起源与进化、分布与生存、生长和发育等方面起着至关重要的作用。而植物多样性又决定了菌根多样性．认为菌根多样性与植物多样性是相辅相成、相互制约的。随着分子生物学技术的不断发展和完善。必将使菌根多样性的研究得到快速发展．     

On the relationship between plant species diversity and genetic diversity of Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae) within and between grassland communities

Aims and Methods The relationship between genetic diversity and species diversity and the underlying mechanisms are of both fundamental and applied interest. We used amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and vegetation records to investigate the association between genetic diversity of Plantago lanceolata and plant species diversity using 15 grassland communities in central Germany. We used correlation and partial correlation analyses to examine whether relationships between genetic and species diversity were direct or mediated by environmental differences between habitats.Important findings Both within- and between-population genetic diversity of P. lanceolata were significantly positively correlated with plant species diversity within and between sites. Simple and partial correlations revealed that the positive correlations indirectly resulted from the effects of abiotic habitat characteristics on plant species diversity and, via abundance, on genetic diversity of P. lanceolata. Thus, they did not reflect a direct causal relationship between plant species diversity and genetic diversity of P. lanceolata, as would have been expected based on the hypothesis of a positive relationship between plant species diversity and niche diversity.     

Reciprocal relationships and potential feedbacks between biodiversity and disturbance

Two major foci of ecological research involve reciprocal views of the relationship between biodiversity and disturbance: disturbance determines community diversity or diversity determines realized disturbance severity. Here, we present an initial attempt to synthesize these two approaches in order to understand whether feedbacks occur, and what their effects on patterns of diversity might be. Our review of published experiments shows that (i) disturbance severity can be both a cause and a consequence of local diversity in a wide range of ecosystems and (ii) shapes of the unidirectional relationships between diversity and disturbance can be quite variable. To explore how feedbacks between diversity and disturbance might operate to alter expected patterns of diversity in nature, we develop and then evaluate a conceptual model that decomposes the relationships into component parts, considering sequentially the effect of diversity on disturbance severity, and the effect of realized disturbance on diversity loss, subsequent recruitment, and competitive exclusion. Our model suggests that feedbacks can increase mean values of richness, decrease variability, and alter the patterns of correlation between diversity and disturbance in nature. We close by offering ideas for future research to help fill gaps in our understanding of reciprocal relationships among ecological variables like diversity and disturbance.     

戴云山物种多样性与系统发育多样性海拔梯度分布格局及驱动因子

生物多样性的海拔分布格局是生态学研究的热点。海拔作为综合性因子驱动着植物群落的物种、系统发育与功能多样性的空间分布。以戴云山南坡900-1600 m森林植物群落为研究对象,探讨物种多样性、系统发育指数与环境驱动因子的相互关系以及环境因子在群落构建与多样性维持中的重要意义。结果表明：（1）森林植物群落的系统发育多样性与物种多样性沿海拔均呈现中间高度膨胀格局。（2）物种多样性Margalef指数、Shannon-Wiener指数与系统发育多样性指数呈显著正相关,表明物种多样性越高,系统发育多样性也越高。Shannon-Wiener指数与物种多样性指数（Margalef、Pielou、Simpson指数）、系统发育多样性及系统发育结构都存在显著相关性,一定程度上Shannon-Wiener指数可以代替其他指数。Pielou指数、Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数与系统发育结构NRI （Net relatedness index）指数、NTI （Net nearest taxa index）指数存在显著正相关,表明群落优势度、均匀度与系统发育结构相关性较强。（3）土壤全磷含量是影响系统发育多样性和物种多样性的主要驱动因子,土壤含水量是影响Shannon-Wiener、Pielou、Simpson指数的最显著因子,海拔是影响群落系统发育结构的主要因素。海拔是影响系统发育结构变化的主要环境因子,而土壤因子是影响物种多样性与系统发育多样性的主要因素,进一步验证了物种多样性与系统发育多样性的高度相关,结果旨在揭示物种群落空间分布规律。     

Comparisons of habitat structure and plant,arthropod and bird diversity between mainland and island sites near Perth,Western Australia

Detailed estimations of habitat structure, plant species diversity and diversity of arthropods were made at six 4.0 ha sites, two on mainland Western Australia near Perth and four on adjacent islands. The number of resident passerine bird species was also recorded at each site. Plant species diversity, and horizontal foliage diversity (=patchiness) varied only slightly between sites. There were significant positive correlations between arthropod Order diversity and bird diversity, and between vertical foliage diversity and bird diversity. In both Acacia and dune scrub, the Rottnest Island sites had more individuals of arthropods than the mainland sites but these belonged to fewer Orders. Numerical imbalance between arthropod Orders on Rottnest Island probably results from diminution of predators (passerine birds) there. As the actual number of arthropods is higher on the islands, the absence of so many species of passerine birds may result from other factors (ecological and historical).     

Community assessment techniques and the implications for rarefaction and extrapolation with Hill numbers

Diversity estimates play a key role in ecological assessments. Species richness and abundance are commonly used to generate complex diversity indices that are dependent on the quality of these estimates. As such, there is a long‐standing interest in the development of monitoring techniques, their ability to adequately assess species diversity, and the implications for generated indices. To determine the ability of substratum community assessment methods to capture species diversity, we evaluated four methods: photo quadrat, point intercept, random subsampling, and full quadrat assessments. Species density, abundance, richness, Shannon diversity, and Simpson diversity were then calculated for each method. We then conducted a method validation at a subset of locations to serve as an indication for how well each method captured the totality of the diversity present. Density, richness, Shannon diversity, and Simpson diversity estimates varied between methods, despite assessments occurring at the same locations, with photo quadrats detecting the lowest estimates and full quadrat assessments the highest. Abundance estimates were consistent among methods. Sample‐based rarefaction and extrapolation curves indicated that differences between Hill numbers (richness, Shannon diversity, and Simpson diversity) were significant in the majority of cases, and coverage‐based rarefaction and extrapolation curves confirmed that these dissimilarities were due to differences between the methods, not the sample completeness. Method validation highlighted the inability of the tested methods to capture the totality of the diversity present, while further supporting the notion of extrapolating abundances. Our results highlight the need for consistency across research methods, the advantages of utilizing multiple diversity indices, and potential concerns and considerations when comparing data from multiple sources.     

Variations in species and functional plant diversity along climatic and grazing gradients

Different components of biodiversity may vary independently of each other along environmental gradients giving insights into the mechanisms that regulate species coexistence. In particular, the functional diversity (FD) or the presence of rare or endemic species in natural assemblages do not necessarily increase with species diversity. We studied if different components of plant species diversity (species richness, Simpson diversity, evenness) varied similarly to FD (measured as a generalization of the Simpson index) and rarity along grazing intensity and climatic gradients. Plots under different sheep grazing regimes (high and low intensity, abandonment) were surveyed in five locations along a climatic gradient in north-eastern Spain, from semi-arid lowland to moist upland locations. Variation in species diversity, functional diversity and rarity followed different patterns. Species diversity was lowest in water-stressed environments (arid locations and southern aspects) and increased with grazing more makedly in humid locations. The FD was comparable between the most species-poor and species-rich locations and decreased with grazing in the moistest location, i.e. where species diversity markedly increased. The FD did not show a strong correlation with species richness nor with the Simpson index and less specious communities could show the highest functional diversity. The rarest species in the region were more frequently found in the abandoned areas, which held the lowest species diversity. Consequently, the mechanisms that enhance the diversity of species do not necessarily support a functional differentiation among those species or the maintenance of rare species in a region. We hypothesize that the degree of dependence of functional diversity on species diversity might be mostly related to the amplitude of the species' traits pool and on how species partition the niche space available.     

生物多样性和均匀度显著性的随机化检验及计算软件

多样性指数和均匀度以其简单易用而被广泛应用于群落生物学和生物多样性等研究中,然而由于缺乏合适的统计检验方法等原因,其分析的可信性往往较低,因而限制了其应用。鉴于生物多样性研究中广泛应用主观和直接的比较不,有必要建立和使用较为严格的多样性统计检验。本研究建立和应用了如下随机化检验方法：单群落多样性指数和均匀度的显著性检验,单群落多样性指数和均匀度的置认区间,群落间多群样和均匀度的差异显著性检验。随机化方法已被成功地应用于群落生态学研究,其原理是：随机排序某一向量中的元素,或随机交换两向量中的对应元素。计算该随机化数据的多样性和均匀度,重复该过程多次,统计和计算显著性检验的p值,由向量中的对应元素。计算该随机化数据的多样性和均匀度,重复该过程多次,统计和显著性检验的p值。由此可确定多样性和差异的统计显著性。同时,研制了相应的Internet计算软件BiodiverisytTest。该软件由7个Java类和1个HTML文件组成,可运行于多种操作系统和网络浏览器上,可读取多种类型的ODBC数据库文件如Access,Excel,FoxPro,Dbase等。该软件中包括Shannon-Wiener多样性指数,Simpson多样性指数,McIntosh多样性指数,Berger-Parker多样性指数,Hrlbert多样性指数以及Brillouin多样性指数。基于Shannon-Wiener多样性指数和Berger-Parker多样性指数,用BiodiversityTest软件对水稻田节肢动物群落多样性（15个地点,17个功能群,125个节肢动物种）进行了比较和分析。结果显示,两组结果可较好地反映水稻节肢动物群落多样性的差异显著性,这些检验方法可有效地反映多样性指数和均匀度的变化。与水稻田节肢动物群落间多样性的直接比较法相比,该随机化检验方法获得更客观的结果。本算法与软件有助于改进生物多样性研究中使用的某些不甚严格的分析方法,为随机化检验方法在生物多样性研究中的进一步应用提供了一种可用的工具。     

Species and genotype diversity drive community and ecosystem properties in experimental microcosms

Species diversity is important to ecosystems because of the increased probability of including species that are strong interactors and/or because multiple-species communities are more efficient at using resources due to synergisms and resource partitioning. Genetic diversity also contributes to ecosystem function through effects on primary productivity, community structure and resilience, and modulating energy and nutrient fluxes. Lacking are studies investigating the relationship between ecosystem function and diversity where hierarchical levels of biological diversity are systematically varied during experimentation. In this experiment, we manipulated both species and genotypic diversity of two Daphnia species in microcosms initially seeded with Chlamydomonas and measured community- and ecosystem-level properties to determine which level of diversity was most important for explaining variation in the property. Our results show that species diversity alters bacterial community composition while high genotypic diversity reduces bacterial richness and primary productivity. In addition, the highest levels of genotypic and species richness appear to increase community and ecosystem stability. These findings reveal that species and genotypic diversity are significant drivers of community and ecosystem properties and stability.     

Dispersal and species diversity: a meta-analysis

Species diversity in communities of interacting organisms is thought to be enhanced by dispersal, yet mechanisms predicting this have little to say about what effects differing rates of dispersal have on diversity and how dispersal affects diversity at larger spatial scales. I performed meta‐analyses on 23 studies comprising 50 experiments that manipulated species migration and measured community richness or diversity to test three hypotheses: that dispersal increases local diversity; that this effect depends on the rate of dispersal, specifically, that local diversity should be maximized at intermediate dispersal rates or else linearly related to dispersal rate; and that regional diversity may be either unaffected or negatively impacted by dispersal because dispersal tends to homogenize local communities. I found that immigration increased local diversity. Further, in animal studies, diversity appears maximized at intermediate dispersal rates but not with plant studies; however, more standardized studies are needed. Finally, results are ambiguous as to what happens at larger scales, with studies finding either declines or no change in regional diversity with dispersal. Taken together, these results reveal that dispersal has a complex, spatially contingent relationship with patterns of species diversity.     

南亚热带常绿阔叶林树木多样性与生物量和生产力的关联及其影响因素

生物多样性和生态系统功能的关系直接或间接地影响着生产力, 是生态学研究的关键问题。本研究旨在定量探讨亚热带自然林演替后期森林生态系统树木多样性与生物量或生产力的关系。本研究基于中国南亚热带长期永久性样地的群落调查数据以及地形和土壤养分数据, 分析了南亚热带常绿阔叶林树木多样性与生物量和生产力的关联及其影响因素。相关性分析结果表明, 物种多样性与生物量呈显著负相关, 与生产力呈显著正相关; 结构多样性与生物量呈显著正相关, 与生产力呈显著负相关。此外, 不同环境因子对多样性、生物量和生产力的影响具有显著差异, 其中土壤含水量对生产力有显著影响, 物种多样性指标与部分地形和土壤因子均有相关性, 而群落结构多样性指标与土壤因子的相关性更强。方差分解结果表明, 结构多样性对生物量和生产力的单独效应的解释率最大, 分别为35.39%和5.21%; 其次是结构多样性和物种多样性的共同效应, 对生物量和生产力的解释率分别为13.66%和3.53%; 地形和土壤因子的解释率较小。同时, 结构方程结果也表明, 结构多样性对生物量有较强的直接正影响; 生物量对生产力有强烈的直接负影响, 结构多样性通过增加生物量明显地减少了生产力; 土壤和地形因子主要是通过物种和结构多样性间接影响生物量和生产力。综上, 本研究认为在南亚热带森林演替顶极群落中, 群落结构复杂性和物种多样性的提高对促进群落生产力和生物量具有重要作用。     

Partitioning plant spectral diversity into alpha and beta components

Plant spectral diversity – how plants differentially interact with solar radiation – is an integrator of plant chemical, structural, and taxonomic diversity that can be remotely sensed. We propose to measure spectral diversity as spectral variance, which allows the partitioning of the spectral diversity of a region, called spectral gamma (γ) diversity, into additive alpha (α; within communities) and beta (β; among communities) components. Our method calculates the contributions of individual bands or spectral features to spectral γ‐, β‐, and α‐diversity, as well as the contributions of individual plant communities to spectral diversity. We present two case studies illustrating how our approach can identify 'hotspots’ of spectral α‐diversity within a region, and discover spectrally unique areas that contribute strongly to β‐diversity. Partitioning spectral diversity and mapping its spatial components has many applications for conservation since high local diversity and distinctiveness in composition are two key criteria used to determine the ecological value of ecosystems.     

Ethnic Diversity and Its Environmental Determinants: Effects of Climate, Pathogens, and Habitat Diversity

This article documents, and seeks to explain, the geographical patterning in ethnic group distributions. Some areas, chiefly equatorial regions and areas of high habitat diversity, are crowded with a large number of named groups. Elsewhere, people over a large area consider themselves members of a single group. Using three new codes for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (ethnic diversity, habitat diversity, and rainfall variation), I show that regions with relatively few ethnic groups (low ethnic diversity) have unpredictable and highly variable climates and low pathogen loads. In most areas there was no relationship between ethnic diversity and ecosystem productivity, and there was little or none with the chief determinants of productivity, mean annual rainfall and temperature. Habitat diversity was also associated with ethnic diversity, particularly among nonstratified societies. Habitat diversity is correlated with degree of topographic relief, but the effect of habitat diversity on ethnic diversity is larger than, and independent of, the effect of topography. [ ethnic diversity, ecological anthropology, spatial organization, cross-cultural research ]     

再论生物多样性与生态系统的稳定性

本文在简述生物多样性与生态系统稳定性研究动态的基础上,从生物多样性和稳定性的概念出发,指出忽视多样性和稳定性的生物组织层次可能是造成观点纷争的根源之一。特定生物组织层次的稳定性可能更多地与该层次的多样性特征相关,探讨多样性和稳定性的关系应从不同的生物组织层次上进行,抗动是生态系统多样性与稳定性关系悖论中的重要因子,如果根据扰动的性质,把生态系统（或其他组织层次）区分为受非正常外力干扰和受环境因子时间异质性波动干扰2类系统,稳定性的4个内涵可以理解为：对于受非正常外力干扰的系统而言,抵抗力和恢复力是稳定性适宜的测度指标;对于受环境因子时间异质性波动干扰和系统而言。利用持久性和变异性衡量系统的稳定性则更具实际意义。结合对群落和种群层次多样性与稳定性相关机制的初步讨论,本文认为;在特定的前提下,多样性可以导致稳定性。     

Multitrophic effects of experimental changes in plant diversity on cavity-nesting bees, wasps, and their parasitoids

Plant diversity changes can impact the abundance, diversity, and functioning of species at higher trophic levels. We used an experimental gradient in grassland plant diversity ranging from 1 to 16 plant species to study multitrophic interactions among plants, cavity-nesting bees and wasps, and their natural enemies, and analysed brood cell density, insect diversity (species richness), and bee and wasp community similarity over two consecutive years. The bee and wasp communities were more similar among the high (16 species) diversity plots than among plots of the lower diversity levels (up to 8 species), and a more similar community of bees and wasps resulted in a more similar community of their parasitoids. Plant diversity, which was closely related to flower diversity, positively and indirectly affected bee diversity and the diversity of their parasitoids via increasing brood cell density of bees. Increasing plant diversity directly led to higher wasp diversity. Parasitism rates of bees and wasps (hosts) were not affected by plant diversity, but increased with the diversity of their respective parasitoids. Decreases in parasitism rates of bees arose from increasing brood cell density of bees (hosts), whereas decreasing parasitism rates of wasps arose from increasing wasp diversity (hosts). In conclusion, decreases in plant diversity propagated through different trophic levels: from plants to insect hosts to their parasitoids, decreasing density and diversity. The positive relationship between plant diversity and the community similarity of higher trophic levels indicates a community-stabilising effect of high plant diversity.     

Connections between species diversity and genetic diversity

Species diversity and genetic diversity remain the nearly exclusive domains of community ecology and population genetics, respectively, despite repeated recognition in the literature over the past 30 years of close parallels between these two levels of diversity. Species diversity within communities and genetic diversity within populations are hypothesized to co‐vary in space or time because of locality characteristics that influence the two levels of diversity via parallel processes, or because of direct effects of one level of diversity on the other via several different mechanisms. Here, we draw on a wide range of studies in ecology and evolution to examine the theoretical underpinnings of these hypotheses, review relevant empirical literature, and outline an agenda for future research. The plausibility of species diversity–genetic diversity relationships is supported by a variety of theoretical and empirical studies, and several recent studies provide direct, though preliminary support. Focusing on potential connections between species diversity and genetic diversity complements other approaches to synthesis at the ecology–evolution interface, and should contribute to conceptual unification of biodiversity research at the levels of genes and species.