sampbias,a method for quantifying geographic sampling biases in species distribution data

Geo‐referenced species occurrences from public databases have become essential to biodiversity research and conservation. However, geographical biases are widely recognized as a factor limiting the usefulness of such data for understanding species diversity and distribution. In particular, differences in sampling intensity across a landscape due to differences in human accessibility are ubiquitous but may differ in strength among taxonomic groups and data sets. Although several factors have been described to influence human access (such as presence of roads, rivers, airports and cities), quantifying their specific and combined effects on recorded occurrence data remains challenging. Here we present sampbias, an algorithm and software for quantifying the effect of accessibility biases in species occurrence data sets. sampbias uses a Bayesian approach to estimate how sampling rates vary as a function of proximity to one or multiple bias factors. The results are comparable among bias factors and data sets. We demonstrate the use of sampbias on a data set of mammal occurrences from the island of Borneo, showing a high biasing effect of cities and a moderate effect of roads and airports. sampbias is implemented as a well‐documented, open‐access and user‐friendly R package that we hope will become a standard tool for anyone working with species occurrences in ecology, evolution, conservation and related fields.     

When the method for mapping species matters: defining priority areas for conservation of African freshwater turtles

Aim Defining priority areas for conservation is essential to minimize biodiversity loss, but the adoption of different methods for describing species distributions influences the outcomes. In order to provide a robust basis for the conservation of freshwater turtles in Africa, we compared the effect that different species‐mapping approaches had on derived patterns of species richness, species vulnerability and protected‐area representativeness. Location Africa. Methods We adopted three different approaches with increasing complexity for generating species distribution maps. The first approach was based on the geographic intersection of species records and grid squares; the second on the union of local convex polygons; and the third on inductive distribution modelling techniques. We used distribution maps, generated using these three approaches, to determine conservation priorities based on geographic patterns of species richness and vulnerability, as well as for conducting gap and irreplaceability analyses. Results We obtained markedly different distribution maps using the three methods, which in turn caused differences in conservation priorities. The grid‐square approach underestimated range sizes and species richness, while the polygon approach overestimated these attributes. The distribution modelling approach provided the most realistic outcome in terms of diversity patterns, by minimizing both commission and omission errors. An integrated map of conservation priority – derived by combining individual measures of priority based on the distribution modelling approach – identified the Gulf of Guinea coast and the Albertine Rift as major priority areas. Main conclusions Each species‐mapping approach has both advantages and disadvantages. The choice of the most appropriate approach in any given situation depends on the availability of locality records and on the relative importance of mitigating omission and commission errors. Our findings suggest that in most circumstances, the use of distribution modelling has many advantages relative to the other approaches. The priority areas identified in this study should be considered for targeting efforts to conserve Africa freshwater turtles in the coming years.     

Synergistic effects of climate and land-use change on representation of African bats in priority conservation areas

Bats are considered important bioindicators and deliver key ecosystem services to humans. However, it is not clear how the individual and combined effects of climate change and land-use change will affect their conservation in the future. We used a spatial conservation prioritization framework to determine future shifts in the priority areas for the conservation of 169 bat species under projected climate and land-use change scenarios across Africa. Specifically, we modelled species distribution models under four different climate change scenarios at the 2050 horizon. We used land-use change scenarios within the spatial conservation prioritization framework to assess habitat quality in areas where bats may shift their distributions. Overall, bats’ representation within already existing protected areas in Africa was low (∼5% of their suitable habitat in protected areas which cover ∼7% of Africa). Accounting for future land-use change resulted in the largest shift in spatial priority areas for conservation actions, and species representation within priority areas for conservation actions decreased by ∼9%. A large proportion of spatial conservation priorities will shift from forested areas with little disturbance under present conditions to agricultural areas in the future. Planning land use to reduce impacts on bats in priority areas outside protected areas where bats will be shifting their ranges in the future is crucial to enhance their conservation and maintain the important ecosystem services they provide to humans.     

Spatial and taxonomic biases in bat records: Drivers and conservation implications in a megadiverse country

Biases in data availability have serious consequences on scientific inferences that can be derived. The potential consequences of these biases could be more detrimental in the less‐studied megadiverse regions, often characterized by high biodiversity and serious risks of human threats, as conservation and management actions could be misdirected. Here, focusing on 134 bat species in Mexico, we analyze spatial and taxonomic biases and their drivers in occurrence data; and identify priority areas for further data collection which are currently under‐sampled or at future environmental risk. We collated a comprehensive database of 26,192 presence‐only bat records in Mexico to characterize taxonomic and spatial biases and relate them to species' characteristics (range size and foraging behavior). Next, we examined variables related to accessibility, species richness and security to explain the spatial patterns in occurrence records. Finally, we compared the spatial distributions of existing data and future threats to these species to highlight those regions that are likely to experience an increased level of threats but are currently under‐surveyed. We found taxonomic biases, where species with wider geographical ranges and narrow‐space foragers (species easily captured with traditional methods), had more occurrence data. There was a significant oversampling toward tropical regions, and the presence and number of records was positively associated with areas of high topographic heterogeneity, road density, urban, and protected areas, and negatively associated with areas which were predicted to have future increases in temperature and precipitation. Sampling efforts for Mexican bats appear to have focused disproportionately on easily captured species, tropical regions, areas of high species richness and security; leading to under‐sampling in areas of high future threats. These biases could substantially influence the assessment of current status of, and future anthropogenic impacts on, this diverse species group in a tropical megadiverse country.     

Distribution of South African marine benthic invertebrates applied to the selection of priority conservation areas

Available data on species distributions and endemicity were compiled and examined for 11 groups of South African marine invertebrates (2533 species). For five groups species richness adhered to a well‐documented pattern, increasing from west to east, but for the other groups species richness was highest along the south coast. Endemicity was generally highest along the south coast, and lowest along the east coast. The data base was then analysed using several types of complementarity analyses, each producing a minimum set of potential reserve areas, which cumulatively represent all invertebrate species analysed. Approaches based solely on rarity, species richness and endemicity demonstrated individual biases, suggesting a need to combine all three interests. Combining the three techniques produced similar results to the individual analyses, showing conservation priorities to be highest along the east coast. Specifically, the areas of Port Elizabeth and Durban were ranked high in all analyses. Consistently, a total of 16 sites was necessary to represent all species analysed. Comparisons with similar analyses on fish and seaweeds revealed similar findings. Existing invertebrate records were shown to be biased towards centres of high sampling activity, demonstrating a need of future sampling attention in under‐represented areas.     

Taxic Richness Patterns and Conservation Evaluation of Madagascan Tiger Beetles (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae)

Distributional ranges of 17 genera and 172 species of Malagasy tiger beetles (Coleoptera, Cicindelidae) have been compiled to determine patterns of species richness and endemism. These patterns reveal large sampling gaps, and potential priority areas for conservation action. Northern and south-western parts of the island are richer in genera, whereas eastern and especially northern parts of the rainforest show higher species richness, due to extensive radiations within the genera Pogonostoma and Physodeutera. A set of 23 areas are identified in this study as priority foci for tiger beetle conservation, and six general regions are bioinventory priorities.     

Accessibility maps as a tool to predict sampling bias in historical biodiversity occurrence records

Historical biodiversity occurrence records are often discarded in spatial modeling analyses because of a lack of a method to quantify their sampling bias. Here we propose a new approach for predicting sampling bias in historical written records of occurrence, using a South African example as proof of concept. We modelled and mapped accessibility of the study area as the mean of proximity to freshwater and European settlements. We tested the model's ability to predict the location of historical biodiversity records from a dataset of 2612 large mammal occurrence records collected from historical written sources in South Africa in the period 1497–1920. We investigated temporal, spatial and environmental biases in these historical records and examined if the model prediction and occurrence dataset share similar environmental bias. We find a good agreement between the accessibility map and the distribution of sampling effort in the early historical period in South Africa. Environmental biases in the empirical data are identified, showing a preference for lower maximum temperature of the warmest month, higher mean monthly precipitation, higher net primary productivity and less arid biomes than expected by a uniform use of the study area. We find that the model prediction shares similar environmental bias as the empirical data. Accessibility maps, built with very simple statistical rules and in the absence of empirical data, can thus predict the spatial and environmental biases observed in historical biodiversity occurrence records. We recommend that this approach be used as a tool to estimate sampling bias in small datasets of occurrence and to improve the use of these data in spatial analyses in ecological and conservation studies.     

Geographic sampling bias in the South African Frog Atlas Project: implications for conservation planning

Quality conservation planning requires quality input data. However, the broad scale sampling strategies typically employed to obtain primary species distribution data are prone to geographic bias in the form of errors of omission. This study provides a quantitative measure of sampling bias to inform accuracy assessment of conservation plans based on the South African Frog Atlas Project. Significantly higher sampling intensity near to cities and roads is likely to result in overstated conservation priority and heightened conservation conflicts in urban areas. Particularly well sampled protected areas will also erroneously appear to contribute highly to amphibian biodiversity targets. Conversely, targeted sampling in the arid northwest and along mountain ranges is needed to ensure that these under-sampled regions are not excluded from conservation plans. The South African Frog Atlas Project offers a reasonably accurate picture of the broad scale west-to-east increase in amphibian richness and abundance, but geographic bias may limit its applicability for fine scale conservation planning. The Global Amphibian Assessment species distribution data offered a less biased alternative, but only at the cost of inflated commission error.     

Reduced genetic diversity in Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus in Southern Africa

The Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus occurs throughout its range in small and dwindling population fragments with limited genetic differentiation between populations, suggesting that the species might be managed as a single entity. The numbers of East and Southern African Bearded Vultures included in previous studies were small, so we determine the genetic variation within, evolutionary placement of and connectivity among sub‐Saharan African populations. Mitochondrial DNA fragment analyses detected little or no differentiation between populations in Ethiopia and Southern Africa, with reduced haplotype diversity in Southern Africa compared with populations in the Northern Hemisphere. The results inform conservation management of this species globally and locally, and offer guidelines for translocations should populations continue to decline.     

A panbiogeographical model to prioritize areas for conservation along large rivers

Aim The large rivers of the Neotropics are considered areas of high diversity and endemism, which play an important role in the distribution patterns and evolution of Neotropical biota. Several methods have been proposed for prioritizing terrestrial conservation areas, but there has been little effort to develop models for river systems. We propose a panbiogeographical approach to identify priority areas for conservation along rivers. Location The Plata Basin rivers. Methods We compared the individual tracks (IT) of 96 snake taxa and identified the species associated with rivers using the concept of preferential direction of distribution. For each taxon, we measured the angular deviations between the line of its IT and the course of the rivers on a 100 × 100 km scaled grid. Average angular values < 45° indicated a positive association with rivers. We detected 35 taxa associated with rivers, and their IT were used to determine the generalized tracks (GT) and nodes. We applied a complementarity algorithm to identify the minimum set of nodes required to represent all species. Results Six nodes were found. The region where the High and Upper Paraná Rivers converge (Node 1) is of first priority, with 60 of 96 species. The second priority is the Lower Paraguay River and northern section of Middle Paraná River (Node 2). The third is the High Paraná, which together with Nodes 1 and 2, comprises 94% of the total species. The fourth and fifth are the High and Middle Uruguay, and the western section of the Upper Paraná and Iberá Marsh system, respectively. These five nodes include all species. Main conclusions Our results highlight the areas of particular interest for the conservation of rivers and provide a biogeographical algorithm for detecting priority conservation areas. The nodes are a biogeographical approach that allows evolutionary and ecological traits to be included in conservation assessment.     

Can distribution models help refine inventory‐based estimates of conservation priority? A case study in the Eastern Arc forests of Tanzania and Kenya

Aim Data shortages mean that conservation priorities can be highly sensitive to historical patterns of exploration. Here, we investigate the potential of regionally focussed species distribution models to elucidate fine‐scale patterns of richness, rarity and endemism. Location Eastern Arc Mountains, Tanzania and Kenya. Methods Generalized additive models and land cover data are used to estimate the distributions of 452 forest plant taxa (trees, lianas, shrubs and herbs). Presence records from a newly compiled database are regressed against environmental variables in a stepwise multimodel. Estimates of occurrence in forest patches are collated across target groups and analysed alongside inventory‐based estimates of conservation priority. Results Predicted richness is higher than observed richness, with the biggest disparities in regions that have had the least research. North Pare and Nguu in particular are predicted to be more important than the inventory data suggest. Environmental conditions in parts of Nguru could support as many range‐restricted and endemic taxa as Uluguru, although realized niches are subject to unknown colonization histories. Concentrations of rare plants are especially high in the Usambaras, a pattern mediated in models by moisture indices, whilst overall richness is better explained by temperature gradients. Tree data dominate the botanical inventory; we find that priorities based on other growth forms might favour the mountains in a different order. Main conclusions Distribution models can provide conservation planning with high‐resolution estimates of richness in well‐researched areas, and predictive estimates of conservation importance elsewhere. Spatial and taxonomic biases in the data are essential considerations, as is the spatial scale used for models. We caution that predictive estimates are most uncertain for the species of highest conservation concern, and advocate using models and targeted field assessments iteratively to refine our understanding of which areas should be prioritised for conservation.     

The role of macroinvertebrates for conservation of freshwater systems

Freshwater ecosystems are the most threatened ecosystems worldwide. Argentinian‐protected areas have been established mainly to protect vertebrates and plants in terrestrial ecosystems. In order to create a comprehensive biodiverse conservation plan, it is crucial to integrate both aquatic and terrestrial systems and to include macroinvertebrates. Here, we address this topic by proposing priority areas of conservation including invertebrates, aquatic ecosystems, and their connectivity and land uses. Location: Northwest of Argentina. We modeled the ecological niches of different taxa of macroinvertebrates such as Coleoptera, Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, Megaloptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Acari, and Mollusca. Based on these models, we analyzed the contribution of currently established protected areas in the conservation of the aquatic biodiversity and we propose a spatial prioritization taking into account possible conflict regarding different land uses. Our analysis units were the real watersheds, to which were added longitudinal connectivity up and down the rivers. A total of 132 species were modeled in the priority area analyses. The analysis 1 showed that only an insignificant percentage of the macroinvertebrates distribution is within the protected areas in the North West of Argentina. The analyses 2 and 3 recovered similar values of protection for the macroinvertebrate species. The upper part of Bermejo, Salí‐Dulce, San Francisco, and the Upper part of Juramento basins were identified as priority areas of conservation. The aquatic ecosystems need special protection and 10% or even as much as 17% of land conservation is insufficient for species of macroinvertebrates. In turn the protected areas need to combine the aquatic and terrestrial systems and need to include macroinvertebrates as a key group to sustain the biodiversity. In many cases, the land uses are in conflict with the conservation of biodiversity; however, it is possible to apply the connectivity of the watersheds and create multiple‐use modules.     

Biased data reduce efficiency and effectiveness of conservation reserve networks

Complementarity-based reserve selection algorithms efficiently prioritize sites for biodiversity conservation, but they are data-intensive and most regions lack accurate distribution maps for the majority of species. We explored implications of basing conservation planning decisions on incomplete and biased data using occurrence records of the plant family Proteaceae in South Africa. Treating this high-quality database as 'complete', we introduced three realistic sampling biases characteristic of biodiversity databases: a detectability sampling bias and two forms of roads sampling bias. We then compared reserve networks constructed using complete, biased, and randomly sampled data. All forms of biased sampling performed worse than both the complete data set and equal-effort random sampling. Biased sampling failed to detect a median of 1-5% of species, and resulted in reserve networks that were 9-17% larger than those designed with complete data. Spatial congruence and the correlation of irreplaceability scores between reserve networks selected with biased and complete data were low. Thus, reserve networks based on biased data require more area to protect fewer species and identify different locations than those selected with randomly sampled or complete data.     

Biodiversity Hotspots and Conservation Priorities in the Campo-Ma’an Rain Forests,Cameroon

Until recently, patterns of species richness and endemism were based on an intuitive interpretation of distribution maps with very limited numerical analyses. Such maps based solely on taxonomic collections tend to concentrate on collecting efforts more than biodiversity hotspots, since often the highest diversity is found in well-collected areas. During the last decades, there has been an overwhelming concern about the loss of tropical forest biological diversity, and an emphasis on the identification of biodiversity hotspots in an attempt to optimise conservation strategies. Furthermore, the concept of sites of high diversity, or hotspots, has attracted the attention of conservationists as a tool for conservation priority settings. With the development of GIS tools, geostatistics, phytosociological and multivariate analysis software packages, more rigorous numerical analyses of distributional and inventory data can be used for assessing conservation priorities. In the Campo-Ma’an rain forest, inventory data from 147 plots of 0.1 ha each and 7137 taxonomic collections were used to examine the distribution and convergence patterns of strict and narrow endemic species. We analysed the trends in endemic and rare species recorded, using quantitative conservation indices such as Genetic Heat Index (GHI) and Pioneer Index (PI), together with geostatistic techniques that help to evaluate and identify potential areas of high conservation priority. The results showed that the Campo-Ma’an area is characterised by a rich and diverse flora with 114 endemic plant species, of which 29 are restricted to the area, 29 also occur in southwestern Cameroon, and 56 others that are also found in other parts of Cameroon. Although most of the forest types rich in strict and narrow endemic species occur in the National Park, there are other biodiversity hotspots in the coastal zone and in areas such as Mont d’Eléphant and Massif des Mamelles that are located outside the National Park. Unfortunately, these areas, supporting 17 strict endemic species that are not found in the park, are under serious threat and do not have any conservation status for the moment. Taking into consideration that with the growing human population density, pressure on these hotspots will increase in the near future, it is suggested that priority be given to the conservation of these areas and that a separate management strategy be developed to ensure their protection.     

Future hotspots of terrestrial mammal loss

Current levels of endangerment and historical trends of species and habitats are the main criteria used to direct conservation efforts globally. Estimates of future declines, which might indicate different priorities than past declines, have been limited by the lack of appropriate data and models. Given that much of conservation is about anticipating and responding to future threats, our inability to look forward at a global scale has been a major constraint on effective action. Here, we assess the geography and extent of projected future changes in suitable habitat for terrestrial mammals within their present ranges. We used a global earth-system model, IMAGE, coupled with fine-scale habitat suitability models and parametrized according to four global scenarios of human development. We identified the most affected countries by 2050 for each scenario, assuming that no additional conservation actions other than those described in the scenarios take place. We found that, with some exceptions, most of the countries with the largest predicted losses of suitable habitat for mammals are in Africa and the Americas. African and North American countries were also predicted to host the most species with large proportional global declines. Most of the countries we identified as future hotspots of terrestrial mammal loss have little or no overlap with the present global conservation priorities, thus confirming the need for forward-looking analyses in conservation priority setting. The expected growth in human populations and consumption in hotspots of future mammal loss mean that local conservation actions such as protected areas might not be sufficient to mitigate losses. Other policies, directed towards the root causes of biodiversity loss, are required, both in Africa and other parts of the world.     

Assessing the conservation of Miombo timber species through an integrated index of anthropogenic and climatic threats

AimAngolan Miombo woodlands, rich in timber species of the Leguminosae family, go through one of the highest rates of deforestation in sub‐Saharan Africa. This study presents, on the basis of updated information of the distribution of Leguminosae timber species native to Angola, an integrated index framing the main threats for trees, which aims to support new conservation measures.LocationSub‐Saharan Africa, Republic of Angola.MethodsThe current distribution areas of six Leguminosae timber species (i.e., Afzelia quanzensis, Brachystegia spiciformis, Guibourtia coleosperma, Isoberlinia angolensis, Julbernardia paniculata, and Pterocarpus angolensis) were predicted through ensemble modeling techniques. The level of threat to each species was analyzed, comparing the species potential distribution with a threat index map and with the protected areas. The threat index of anthropogenic and climatic factors encompasses the effects of population density, agriculture, proximity to roads, loss of tree cover, overexploitation, trends in wildfires, and predicted changes in temperature and precipitation.ResultsOur results revealed that about 0.5% of Angola''s area is classified as of “Very high” threat, 23.9% as “High” threat, and 66.5% as “Moderate” threat. Three of the studied species require special conservation efforts, namely B. spiciformis and I. angolensis, which have a large fraction of predicted distribution in areas of high threat, and G. coleosperma since it has a restricted distribution area and is one of the most valuable species in international markets. The priority areas for the conservation of Leguminosae timber species were found in Benguela and Huíla.Main conclusionsThis study provides updated data that should be applied to inform policymakers, contributing to national conservation planning and protection of native flora in Angola. Moreover, it presents a methodological approach for the predictions of species distribution and for the creation of a threat index map that can be applied in other poorly surveyed tropical regions.     

Influence of scale on conservation priority setting – a test on African mammals

Broad-scale priority regions for conservation can be identified usingdatabases on species distribution through the application of site-selectionalgorithms. However, the influence of scale on large-scale priority setting isstill unclear. Using a data set of all 939 sub-Saharan mammal species,we wanted to know if continental conservation priorities derived at the scales of 1°, 2°,4° and 8° latitude–longitude grid cells are consistent. We testedwhether (1) geographical location of minimum sets were nested across scale, (2)the selection sequence (priority) of areas within a minimum set were scaledependent, and (3) these coarse-scale priorities can act as a cost-effectiveshortcut for the identification of fine-scale priorities. We found that minimumsets at smaller scales were largely represented within minimum sets at largerscales, especially when flexibility was considered. However, the geographicallocation of the grid cells with highest priority in the minimum sets was onlyscale independent if ranked by number of endangered species, total speciesrichness or rare quartile species richness, but surprisingly not bycomplementary species richness. Minimum sets at a 1° scale were generallyidentified within the areas of the 2°, 4° and 8° minimum sets.Therefore, coarse-scale priorities may provide a pragmatic basis for immediateassessment of priorities for conservation.     

Integrating Economic Costs and Biological Traits into Global Conservation Priorities for Carnivores

Background

Prioritization schemes usually highlight species-rich areas, where many species are at imminent risk of extinction. To be ecologically relevant these schemes should also include species biological traits into area-setting methods. Furthermore, in a world of limited funds for conservation, conservation action is constrained by land acquisition costs. Hence, including economic costs into conservation priorities can substantially improve their conservation cost-effectiveness.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We examined four global conservation scenarios for carnivores based on the joint mapping of economic costs and species biological traits. These scenarios identify the most cost-effective priority sets of ecoregions, indicating best investment opportunities for safeguarding every carnivore species, and also establish priority sets that can maximize species representation in areas harboring highly vulnerable species. We compared these results with a scenario that minimizes the total number of ecoregions required for conserving all species, irrespective of other factors. We found that cost-effective conservation investments should focus on 41 ecoregions highlighted in the scenario that consider simultaneously both ecoregion vulnerability and economic costs of land acquisition. Ecoregions included in priority sets under these criteria should yield best returns of investments since they harbor species with high extinction risk and have lower mean land cost.

Conclusions/Significance

Our study highlights ecoregions of particular importance for the conservation of the world''s carnivores defining global conservation priorities in analyses that encompass socioeconomic and life-history factors. We consider the identification of a comprehensive priority-set of areas as a first step towards an in-situ biodiversity maintenance strategy.     

Invasive alien plants and South African rivers: a proposed approach to the prioritization of control operations

1. A number of parallel initiatives in South Africa have been addressing the prioritization and management of invasive alien plant species, the prioritization of rivers for the conservation of biodiversity, and broad‐scale planning for water resource management. This paper has combined aspects of these approaches to develop a composite index of prioritization of quaternary catchments for alien plant control purposes. 2. We calculated, for each quaternary catchment, a simple composite index that combined estimates of (i) the number of invasive alien plant species present; (ii) the potential number of invasive alien plant species that would be present if they occupied the full range as determined by climatic envelope models; (iii) the degree of habitat loss in rivers; and (iv) the degree of water stress. Each of the four components contributed between one and four to the combined index, which had a range of values between four and 16. 3. We used a geographic information system to map the distribution of priority catchments for invasive alien plant control. Of the 1911 quaternary catchments in South Africa and Lesotho, just over one‐third (650) were in the highest priority category with an index of 13 or more. A relatively small proportion (273, or 14%) of the catchments had the maximum scores of 15 or 16. 4. The approach identified priority areas that have not currently been identified as such, and should provide decision makers with an objective and transparent method with which to prioritize areas for the control of invasive alien plants. We anticipate debate about the way in which components of the index are calculated, and the weight given to the different components, and that this will lead to the transparent evolution of the index. Improvements would also come about through the addition of a more comprehensive list of species, and through the addition of further components.     

Biological vs. social, economic and political priority-setting in conservation

The most influential conservation priority‐setting approaches emphasize biodiversity and threats when deciding where to focus investment. However, socio‐economic and political attributes of nations influence the effectiveness of conservation actions. A combination of biological and sociological variables in the context of a ‘return on investment’ framework for establishing conservation priorities was explored. While there was some overlap between megadiversity nations and return on investment priorities, only a few countries emerged as high priorities irrespective of which factors were included in the analysis. Conversely, some countries that ranked highly as priorities for conservation when focusing solely on biological metrics, did not rank highly when governance, population pressure, economic costs and conservation needs were considered (e.g. Colombia, Ecuador, Indonesia and Venezuela). No priority‐setting scheme is a priori superior to alternative approaches. However, the analyses suggest that attention to governance and return on investment may alter biocentric assessments of ideal conservation investments.