Vocal Cues to Identity: Pied Babblers Produce Individually Distinct But Not Stable Loud Calls

The ability to identify social partners can play a key role in the coordination of social behaviours in group‐living animals. Coordinating social behaviours over long distances becomes problematic, as cues to identity are often limited to one or two sensory modalities. This limitation can often select for strong individuality in those cues used for long‐distance communication. Pied babblers, Turdoides bicolor, produce a number of different types of ‘loud calls’ which are frequently used to signal to individuals beyond the range of visual or olfactory pathways of communication. Here, we show that three of these ‘loud call’ types, the v‐shaped chatter, the double note ascending chatter and the atonal chatter, are each individually distinct. We hypothesise that individuality in the three loud call types tested here may represent a possible pathway to social recognition in this species that may have important consequences for social interactions. However, we also found that the atonal chatter was unstable between years suggesting that this particular call type may not be a reliable long‐term indicator to identity which may affect long‐term recognition in this species.     

Formant Frequencies are Acoustic Cues to Caller Discrimination and are a Weak Indicator of the Body Size of Corncrake Males

Source–filter theory assumes that calls are generated by a vocal source and are subsequently filtered by the vocal tract. The air in the vocal tract vibrates preferentially at certain resonant frequencies, called formants. Formant frequencies can be a good indicator of the caller's characteristics, such as sex, age, body size or individual identity. Although source–filter theory was originally proposed for mammals, formants are also observed in birds, and some bird species have been shown to perceive formants. In this study, we evaluated the hypotheses that formant frequencies (1) are an indicator of body size and (2) can be used for individual discrimination by a nocturnal bird species, the corncrake (Crex crex). We analysed calls of 104 males from Poland and the Czech Republic. Linear regression models showed that the males with a longer head (including the bill length) had a significantly lower formant dispersion and lower fourth and fifth formant frequencies. However, we found no significant relationships between body weight and any filter‐related acoustic measurement. The formant frequencies had smaller within‐ than between‐individual coefficients of variation. This characteristic of the formant frequencies implies a high potential for individual coding. A discriminant function analysis correctly assigned 94.8% of the calls to the caller based on formants from second to fifth. Our results indicated that the formant frequencies are a weak indicator of the body size of the sender in the corncrake. However, even weak dependence between body size and acoustic properties of signal may be important in natural selection process. Alternatively, such a weak dependence may be observed, because receivers ignore the acoustical, formant‐based cues of body size. Simultaneously, the formants might potentially provide acoustic cues to individual discrimination and could be used to census and monitoring tasks.     

Improvement in Double Staining With Fluoro-Jade C and Fluorescent Immunostaining: FJC Staining Is Not Specific to Degenerating Mature Neurons

Fluoro-Jade C (FJC) staining has been used to detect degenerating neurons in tissue sections. It is a simple and easy staining procedure and does not depend on the manner of cell death. In some experiments, double staining with FJC and fluorescent immunostaining (FI) is required to identify cell types. However, pretreatment for FJC staining contains some processes that are harsh to fluorophores, and the FI signal is greatly reduced. To overcome this issue, we improved the double staining protocol to acquire clear double-stained images by introducing the labeled streptavidin–biotin system. In addition, several studies indicate that FJC can label non-degenerating glial cells, including resting/reactive astrocytes and activated microglia. Moreover, our previous study indicated that degenerating mesenchymal cells were also labeled by FJC, but it is still unclear whether FJC can label degenerating glial cells. Acute encephalopathy model mice contained damaged astrocytes with clasmatodendrosis, and 6-aminonicotinamide-injected mice contained necrotic astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Using our improved double staining protocol with FJC and FI, we detected FJC-labeled degenerating astrocytes and oligodendrocytes with pyknotic nuclei. These results indicate that FJC is not specific to degenerating neurons in some experimental conditions:     

Low Sugar Is Not Always Good: Impact of Specific O-Glycan Defects on Tip Growth in Arabidopsis

Mutants of the O-glycosylation pathway of extensins as well as molecular dynamics simulations uncover the effects of the O-glycosylation machinery on root hair tip growth.The hydroxyproline-rich O-glycoproteins (HRGPs) comprise several groups of O-glycoproteins, including extensins (EXTs), ultimately secreted into plant cell walls. The latter are shaped by several posttranslational modifications, mainly hydroxylation of Pro residues into Hyp and further O-glycosylation on Hyp and Ser (Supplemental Fig. S1A). EXTs contain several Ser-(Hyp)₄ repeats, usually O-glycosylated with chains of up to four or five linear arabinosyl units on each Hyp (Velasquez et al., 2011; Ogawa-Ohnishi et al., 2013) and monogalactosylated on Ser residues (Saito et al., 2014). O-Glycosylated Ser-(Hyp)₄ repeats are not only present in EXTs but can potentially decorate several other EXT-like chimeras and hybrid EXT glycoproteins that contain other domains, such as arabinogalactan protein-EXTs, Pro-rich protein-EXTs, Leu-rich repeat-EXTs, Pro-rich kinases, and formins with an extracellular EXT domain, etc. In addition, Hyp-O-arabinosylation also occurs in single Hyp units in the small secreted glycopeptide hormones (e.g. CLAVATA3 [CLV3]) with up to three arabinosyl units (Ohyama et al., 2009; Matsubayashi, 2010; Shinohara and Matsubayashi, 2013). In this context, three groups of arabinosyltransferases (AraTs), hydroxyproline O-arabinosyltransferase1 (HPAT1) to HPAT3 (classified as GT8 in the Carbohydrate Active Enzymes database), Reduced Residual Arabinose1 (RRA1) to RRA3, and Xyloglucanase113 (XEG113; GT77 family), have recently been implicated in the sequential addition of the innermost three l-arabinosyl residues (Egelund et al., 2007; Ogawa-Ohnishi et al., 2013; Supplemental Table S1). In addition, one novel peptidyl-Ser galactosyltransferase named SERGT1 has been reported to add a single α-galactopyranose residue to each Ser residue in Ser-(Hyp)₄ motifs of EXTs, thus belonging to the GT96 family within the Carbohydrate Active Enzymes database (Supplemental Table S1). Finally, glycosylated EXTs are possibly cross-linked by putative type III peroxidases at the Tyr residues, forming EXT linkages (Cannon et al., 2008) able to build a three-dimensional network likely to interact with other cell wall components like pectins (Cannon et al., 2008). EXT assembly into a putative glycoprotein network seems to be crucial for cell expansion of root hair, and several EXT and EXT-related mutants (e.g. ext6-7, ext10-12, and Leu-rich repeat extensin1, etc.) were previously isolated with abnormal root hair cell expansion phenotypes (Ringli, 2010; Velasquez et al., 2011).Here, by using mutants of several known enzymes of the O-glycosylation pathway of HRGPs, we addressed to what extent each specific defect on the O-glycosylation machinery impacts root hair tip growth. In addition, we refer only to Hyp-O-arabinosylation and Ser-O-galactosylation modifications of EXT and EXT-related proteins, while we have excluded Hyp O-(arabino)galactosylation, commonly present in other types of HRGP like arabinogalactan proteins, from our analysis. Finally, by molecular dynamic simulations, we propose a possible model to explore how these two specific types of O-glycan defects would affect EXT self-assembly and, ultimately, their impact on the polarized cell expansion. We use a classical EXT repetitive sequence to begin to explore how O-glycosylation might affect glycoprotein conformation and possible self-interactions in the context of polarized growth, but we are aware of the complexity and diversity of EXT and EXT-related proteins that offers several other possible scenarios.     

Waste Not,Want Not: Why Rarefying Microbiome Data Is Inadmissible

Current practice in the normalization of microbiome count data is inefficient in the statistical sense. For apparently historical reasons, the common approach is either to use simple proportions (which does not address heteroscedasticity) or to use rarefying of counts, even though both of these approaches are inappropriate for detection of differentially abundant species. Well-established statistical theory is available that simultaneously accounts for library size differences and biological variability using an appropriate mixture model. Moreover, specific implementations for DNA sequencing read count data (based on a Negative Binomial model for instance) are already available in RNA-Seq focused R packages such as edgeR and DESeq. Here we summarize the supporting statistical theory and use simulations and empirical data to demonstrate substantial improvements provided by a relevant mixture model framework over simple proportions or rarefying. We show how both proportions and rarefied counts result in a high rate of false positives in tests for species that are differentially abundant across sample classes. Regarding microbiome sample-wise clustering, we also show that the rarefying procedure often discards samples that can be accurately clustered by alternative methods. We further compare different Negative Binomial methods with a recently-described zero-inflated Gaussian mixture, implemented in a package called metagenomeSeq. We find that metagenomeSeq performs well when there is an adequate number of biological replicates, but it nevertheless tends toward a higher false positive rate. Based on these results and well-established statistical theory, we advocate that investigators avoid rarefying altogether. We have provided microbiome-specific extensions to these tools in the R package, phyloseq.     

Sex‐Specific Fat Distribution Is Not Linear Across Pubertal Groups in a Multiethnic Study

Objective: To investigate sexual dimorphism and race differences in fat distribution (android/gynoid) before and during puberty. Research Methods and Procedures: Fat distribution was measured by skinfold thickness and DXA in healthy African‐American, Asian, and white subjects (n = 920), divided into pre‐, early, and late pubertal groups. Results: Gynoid fat masses adjusted for covariates were lower in late pubertal compared with prepubertal boys, but were not consistently greater in late pubertal compared with prepubertal girls. Progression of sex‐specific fat distribution with increasing maturation was present in Asians only. Among African‐American and white subjects, early pubertal boys had greater gynoid fat mass compared with the prepubertal group, whereas early pubertal girls had less gynoid fat mass compared with the prepubertal group. Sexual dimorphism in fat distribution was present in all pubertal groups, except among whites at early puberty. Among girls, Asians had lower gynoid fat than whites and African Americans in all pubertal groups. Among boys, Asians had less gynoid fat by DXA in early puberty and late puberty. Discussion: Comparison among races demonstrated differences in sexual dimorphism and sex‐specific fat distribution with progression in pubertal group. However, in all race groups, the fat distribution of late pubertal boys was more “male” or “android” than prepubertal boys, but late pubertal girls did not differ consistently from prepubertal girls. These findings suggested that the greater sexual dimorphism of fat distribution in late puberty compared with prepuberty may be attributable to larger changes in boys with smaller changes in girls.     

The Current Waist Circumference Cut Point Used for the Diagnosis of Metabolic Syndrome in Sub-Saharan African Women Is Not Appropriate

The waist circumference cut point for diagnosing the metabolic syndrome in sub-Saharan African subjects is based on that obtained from studies in European populations. The aim of this study was to measure the prevalence of obesity and related metabolic disorders in an urban population of African females, a group at high risk for such diseases, and to determine the appropriate waist cut point for diagnosing the metabolic syndrome. Anthropometry and fasting lipid, glucose and insulin levels were measured in a cohort of 1251 African females participating in the Birth to Twenty cohort study in Soweto, Johannesburg. The waist circumference cut points for diagnosing metabolic syndrome (as defined using the new harmonised guidelines), insulin resistance, dysglycaemia, hypertension and dyslipidaemia were obtained using receiver operator characteristic curve analysis. The prevalence of obesity, type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome were 50.1%, 14.3% and 42.1%, respectively. The appropriate waist cut point for diagnosing metabolic syndrome was found to be 91.5 cm and was similar to the cuts points obtained for detecting increased risk of insulin resistance (89.0 cm), dysglycaemia (88.4 cm), hypertension (90.1 cm), hypo-high density lipoproteinaemia (87.6 cm) and hyper-low density lipoproteinaemia (90.5 cm). The present data demonstrates that urban, African females have a high prevalence of obesity and related disorders and the waist cut point currently recommended for the diagnosis of the metabolic syndrome (80.0 cm) in this population should be increased to 91.5 cm. This latter finding demonstrates a clear ethnic difference in the relationship between abdominal adiposity and metabolic disease risk. The similar waist cut points identified for the detection of the individual components of the metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular risk factors demonstrates that the risk for different metabolic diseases increases at the same level of abdominal adiposity suggesting a common aetiological pathway.     

Science and Technology Is Not Simply Equal to Sci-Tech

The terms "science" (Hanyu Pinyin: Kexue) and "technology" (Jishu), in western languages, are usually used separately with different meanings or together as "science and technology". However, they are often mentioned as "Kexue Jishu", or even abbreviated as "sci-tech (Keji)" in China (It is used in a similar way in Japan). It not only causes great confusion in conceptual content, but also very misleading     

棘胸蛙求偶鸣声与温度有关但与体大小无关

鸣声被认为是鉴别蛙类物种最有效的特征之一,但受许多因素影响。为了研究环境因素和身体大小与雄性棘胸蛙鸣声特征的关系,在人工仿生态养殖条件下测量环境温度和体温以及蛙体的大小(体重、体长),并通过个体定位,录制繁殖期中雄性棘胸蛙的求偶鸣声,分析鸣叫参数。结果表明,棘胸蛙雄性鸣声特征测量参数与体重、体长无相关性,而鸣声特征中的鸣叫时长、音节时长与环境温度、水温、体温、泄殖腔温度存在负相关性。研究结果提示在开展棘胸蛙鸣声学研究时应注意温度对其的影响。     

The Ability to Induce Microtubule Acetylation Is a General Feature of Formin Proteins

Cytoplasmic microtubules exist as distinct dynamic and stable populations within the cell. Stable microtubules direct and maintain cell polarity and it is thought that their stabilization is dependent on coordinative organization between the microtubule network and the actin cytoskeleton. A growing body of work suggests that some members of the formin family of actin remodeling proteins also regulate microtubule organization and stability. For example, we showed previously that expression of the novel formin INF1 is sufficient to induce microtubule stabilization and tubulin acetylation, but not tubulin detyrosination. An important issue with respect to the relationship between formins and microtubules is the determination of which formin domains mediate microtubule stabilization. INF1 has a distinct microtubule-binding domain at its C-terminus and the endogenous INF1 protein is associated with the microtubule network. Surprisingly, the INF1 microtubule-binding domain is not essential for INF1-induced microtubule acetylation. We show here that expression of the isolated FH1 + FH2 functional unit of INF1 is sufficient to induce microtubule acetylation independent of the INF1 microtubule-binding domain. It is not yet clear whether or not microtubule stabilization is a general property of all mammalian formins; therefore we expressed constitutively active derivatives of thirteen of the fifteen mammalian formin proteins in HeLa and NIH3T3 cells and measured their effects on stress fiber formation, MT organization and MT acetylation. We found that expression of the FH1 + FH2 unit of the majority of mammalian formins is sufficient to induce microtubule acetylation. Our results suggest that the regulation of microtubule acetylation is likely a general formin activity and that the FH2 should be thought of as a dual-function domain capable of regulating both actin and microtubule networks.     

The Future Is Not Ours To See: Puppetry and Modernity in Rajasthan

Bhats are low-status bards from the Indian state of Rajasthan. This paper explores a Bhat puppet drama sponsored by a state-run bank meant to teach Indians an ethic of saving and planning for the future. Specifically, it examines the manner in which Bhats sabotage their work for the bank, mocking the values they are hired to promote and thus ‘resisting’ modernist ideologies that purportedly allow for the rational management of time. Still, Bhat dramas are not only conventional political weapons that turn the world upside-down, but also poetic devices that potentially raise the consciousness of audience members so that they themselves might resist. In fact, this play, in the manner it speaks truth to power and thus teaches others to resist in thought or action, resembles the Bhats' traditional praise-work for their formerly Untouchable patrons. I therefore suggest that the Bhats' ‘subaltern consciousness,’ like their insights into the discursive construction of modern authority, is tightly intertwined with local performance traditions.