葛根芩连汤对肠道湿热证泄泻小鼠肠道微生物的影响

目的探讨葛根芩连汤对肠道湿热证泄泻小鼠肠道微生物的影响。方法造模:10只KM雄性小鼠随机分为正常组5只和模型组5只,采用"高糖高脂+高温高湿+白酒复合灌胃冰水"的方法制备肠道湿热证泄泻小鼠模型。治疗:15只KM雄性小鼠随机分为正常组5只和模型组10只,造模成功后将模型组小鼠分为自愈组和治疗组,治疗组小鼠运用葛根芩连汤进行治疗,分别在造模和治疗后无菌采集小鼠肠道内容物进行微生物培养。结果造模后,小鼠出现懒动、肛温升高、体重增长缓慢、黄褐色稀便、肛门污秽等湿热泄泻症状,肠道乳杆菌数高于正常组,而细菌总数、肠杆菌、双歧杆菌、B/E值降低,其中细菌总数以及双歧杆菌数与正常组相比差异有统计学意义(t=14.182,P0.001;t=2.797,P=0.049)。经葛根芩连汤治疗后,小鼠肠道乳杆菌和双歧杆菌数高于正常组,而细菌总数、肠杆菌数低于正常组,且乳杆菌数和肠杆菌数与正常组相比差异有统计学意义(t=-5.210,P=0.033;t=-11.160,P=0.008),B/E值与正常组差异无统计学意义(t=-1.427,P=0.227)。结论造模使小鼠肠道双歧杆菌数显著降低,B/E值下降;葛根芩连汤可促进肠道湿热证泄泻小鼠肠道乳杆菌和双歧杆菌的增生,提高B/E值。     

痛泻要方对“肝气乘脾”泄泻小鼠肠黏膜及肠内容物消化酶活性的影响

目的探讨痛泻要方对"肝气乘脾"泄泻小鼠肠道酶活性的影响。方法采用"番泻叶-离心管束缚夹尾法"进行"肝气乘脾"泄泻造模,造模成功后以痛泻要方治疗,造模和治疗后分别分析小鼠肠道酶活性。结果造模后,模型组小鼠肠道内容物的淀粉酶活性显著降低(t=4.007,P=0.015),纤维素酶、蛋白酶、蔗糖酶活性下降不显著。模型组小鼠肠黏膜蛋白酶、淀粉酶、蔗糖酶活性显著下降(t_蛋=5.652,P=0.005;Z_淀=-1.964,P=0.050;t_蔗=4.737,P=0.009)。痛泻要方治疗后,中药干预组小鼠肠道内容物蛋白酶、纤维素酶、乳糖酶和蔗糖酶活性变化不显著;自然恢复组的淀粉酶活性显著高于正常组(t=-7.497,P=0.002)。中药干预组小鼠肠道前段黏膜蛋白酶、乳糖酶、淀粉酶、蔗糖酶活性恢复不显著;中药干预组小鼠肠道黏膜中段乳糖酶、蔗糖酶活性显著低于自然恢复组(t_乳=4.074,P=0.013;t_蔗=8.072,P0.001),而蛋白酶、淀粉酶及纤维素酶活性均高于自然恢复组;中药干预组小鼠肠道后段黏膜乳糖酶、蔗糖酶及淀粉酶活性显著高于正常组(t_乳=-7.962,P0.001;t_蔗=-15.921,P0.001;Z_淀=6.489,P=0.034),蛋白酶与纤维素酶活性均有所升高。结论 "肝气乘脾"泄泻肠道内容物及黏膜淀粉酶活性显著降低,痛泻要方对"肝气乘脾"泄泻小鼠肠黏膜乳糖酶、蔗糖酶及淀粉酶活性作用显著。     

七味白术散对抗生素所致腹泻小鼠 肠道乳糖酶活性的影响

目的探讨七味白术散对抗生素所致腹泻小鼠肠道乳糖酶活性的影响,从肠道功能酶角度阐释七味白术散治疗抗生素所致腹泻的作用机制。方法将SPF级昆明小鼠分为正常组、自愈组和治疗组。采用硫酸庆大霉素和头孢拉定混合抗生素制备腹泻小鼠模型,造模成功后,自愈组和正常组给予无菌生理盐水,治疗组灌胃七味白术散,治疗4d。无菌条件下采集治疗前后各组小鼠肠道前、中、后段黏膜,使用ONPG法测定样品中乳糖酶活性。结果抗生素所致腹泻模型小鼠肠道黏膜乳糖酶活性降低,七味白术散治疗4d后,治疗组小鼠腹泻症状消失,肠道黏膜乳糖酶活性恢复且提高。结论抗生素可引起小鼠腹泻及肠道乳糖酶活性下降,七味白术散可促进腹泻小鼠肠道黏膜乳糖酶活性恢复而治疗腹泻。     

抗生素所致菌群失调腹泻小鼠 肠道蔗糖酶活性的研究

目的探究抗生素所致菌群失调腹泻小鼠肠道蔗糖酶的活性,为抗生素的临床应用提供参考。方法采用混合抗生素制备菌群失调腹泻小鼠模型,用DNS法测定造模期间小鼠肠道内容物及各肠段黏膜蔗糖酶的活性变化。结果造模4d后,模型组小鼠肠道内容物中蔗糖酶活性显著低于正常组。随着造模时间的延长,其蔗糖酶活性继续降低,远低于正常组。造模第2天起,模型组小鼠各肠段黏膜蔗糖酶活性均低于正常组,且随着造模时间延长,小鼠各肠段黏膜蔗糖酶活性降低程度有所不同,但与正常组相比差异均有统计学意义。结论抗生素可显著降低肠道内容物和肠黏膜蔗糖酶活性,抑制小鼠对营养物质的消化吸收功能。     

七味白术散对菌群失调腹泻 小鼠肠道蔗糖酶活性的影响

目的探究七味白术散对菌群失调腹泻小鼠肠道蔗糖酶活性的影响,为其临床应用提供依据。方法将132只SPF级KM小鼠分为正常组、模型组、七味白术散组,每组44只,雌雄各半。采用硫酸庆大霉素和头孢拉定混合抗生素制备腹泻小鼠模型,造模成功后,七味白术散组给予七味白术散汤剂进行治疗,正常组和模型组给予等量无菌水进行灌胃,连续治疗6 d。造模结束和治疗期间每天灌胃前进行小鼠肠道取材,分别测定小鼠肠道内容物、肠道黏膜前中后段蔗糖酶活性,观察治疗期间蔗糖酶活性的动态变化。结果造模结束后,小鼠的肠道内容物和肠道黏膜前中后段蔗糖酶活性与正常组比均下降明显(t=23.684,P0.01)。肠道内容物:治疗第1天,模型组、七味白术散组蔗糖酶活性仍低于正常组(t=13.909,P0.01),到治疗第3天,模型组和正常组差异无统计学意义(P0.05),七味白术散组显著高于正常组和模型组(t=14.189,P0.01)。肠道黏膜前段和中段:治疗第1天,模型组和七味白术散组酶活性差异无统计学意义(P0.05),且均低于正常组(t=19.274,P0.01),治疗第3天,模型组和正常组酶活性差异无统计学意义(P0.05),七味白术散组酶活性远远高于正常组和模型组(t=19.467,P0.01)。黏膜后段:治疗第1天,模型组和七味白术散组酶活性差异无统计学意义(P0.05),均显著低于正常组(t=12.783,P0.01),治疗第3天,模型组和正常组酶活性差异无统计学意义(P0.05),七味白术散组酶活性均远远高于正常组和模型组(t=10.942,P0.01)。结论抗生素可引起小鼠腹泻及肠道蔗糖酶活性下降,七味白术散可促进腹泻小鼠肠道黏膜蔗糖酶活性恢复而治疗腹泻。     

痛泻要方对肝气乘脾泄泻小鼠肠道微生物活度的影响

目的探讨痛泻要方对肝气乘脾泄泻小鼠肠道微生物活度的影响,为痛泻要方通过调节肠道微生物治疗肝气乘脾泄泻提供实验基础和理论依据。方法将25只SPF级雄性昆明小鼠随机分为正常组10只和模型组15只,造模成功后,随机选取正常组和模型组动物各5只,在无菌环境下提取肠道内容物和肠黏膜,剩余模型动物随机分为自然恢复组和治疗组各5只,治疗成功后处死各组动物提取肠道内容物和肠黏膜。用荧光素二乙酸法测定各样品中微生物活度。结果肝气乘脾泄泻造模小鼠肠道内容物微生物活度高于正常组,与正常组相比差异有统计学意义(P=0.01),而模型组小鼠肠黏膜微生物活度降低,与正常组相比差异有统计学意义(P=0.01)。痛泻要方治疗组和自然恢复组小鼠肠道内容物微生物活度均降低,与正常组相比差异无统计学意义(P>0.05),治疗组和自然恢复组小鼠的肠黏膜前段和后段均与正常组差异有统计学意义(P=0.001),肠黏膜中段自然恢复组与正常组差异有统计学意义(P=0.043),而治疗组与正常组没有差异。结论肝气乘脾泄泻造模使肠道内容物微生物活度增加,而使肠黏膜微生物活度降低。痛泻要方能够使肝气乘脾泄泻小鼠肠道内容物中微生物活度降低,恢复至正常水平,增加肠黏膜中段微生物活度,对肠黏膜后段微生物活度增加作用更显著。     

养胃四君子茶对脾虚便秘小鼠肠道微生物、酶活性及胃动力的影响

目的探讨养胃四君子茶对脾虚便秘小鼠肠道微生物及酶活性的影响。方法将40只小鼠随机分为正常对照组、模型组、治疗组[养胃四君子茶(低剂量组、中剂量组、高剂量组)],每组8只。对模型组和治疗组采用灌胃番泻叶水提液7 d后,改用饮食不节+缺水燥结+过度疲劳喂养8 d等方法。造模结束后,模型组和正常对照组采用无菌水灌胃,治疗组用养胃四君子茶灌胃,0.8 mL/d连续6 d。然后采集肠道内容物,分析肠道菌群及酶活性。结果与正常对照组小鼠肠道细菌总数比较,模型组显著上升(P<0.05),治疗组差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);大肠埃希菌数量各组差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);小鼠肠道乳酸菌数量养胃四君子茶低、中剂量组均较正常对照组、模型组显著升高(均P<0.01);双歧杆菌数量养胃四君子茶低、中剂量组与正常对照组、模型组相比均显著升高(均P<0.01);与正常对照组比较,其余各组小鼠肠道酶活总体呈上升趋势,尤其肠道淀粉酶(P<0.01);养胃四君子茶低、中剂量组蛋白酶活性均显著上升(均P<0.05);与正常对照组比较,模型组及养胃四君子茶低、中剂量组木聚糖酶活性显著上升(P<0.01或P<0.05),其余组差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);与正常对照组比较,模型组及养胃四君子茶低、中剂量组纤维素酶活性均显著上升(均P<0.05)。与正常对照组比较,模型组、养胃四君子茶低剂量组的血清D 木糖含量显著下降(均P<0.01)。结论养胃四君子茶可抑制细菌过度增长、扶植有益菌生长,改善肠道酶活性、增强胃肠蠕动,从而改善脾虚便秘。     

菌群失调腹泻造模及七味白术散治疗对小鼠乳糖酶基因13910多态性的影响

目的探讨抗生素及七味白术散对菌群失调腹泻小鼠乳糖酶基因13910位点多态性的影响。方法将36只SPF级小鼠随机分为正常组(12只)、模型组(12只)、七味白术散组(6只)和乳糖酶组(6只),除正常组外的其余小鼠采用混合抗生素造成菌群失调腹泻模型,然后分别灌胃七味白术散和乳糖酶治疗。造模成功和治疗后分别提取小鼠肠道内容物和肠道黏膜宏基因组,对包括小鼠乳糖酶基因13910位点在内的1 036bp长度的DNA片段进行单核苷酸多态性(SNP)测序分析。结果造模和治疗后,小鼠乳糖酶基因13910位点没有发生碱基的变异,均为A/A型,13910位点在内的1 036bp范围内也没有新的SNP位点出现。结论菌群失调腹泻造模与七味白术散治疗对小鼠乳糖酶活性的干预均与小鼠乳糖酶基因13910位点多态性没有相关性,可能存在其他多态性位点或其他方面的调控机制。     

痛泻要方对肝气乘脾泄泻小鼠肠道微生物的影响

目的探讨痛泻要方对肝气乘脾泄泻小鼠肠道微生物的影响,为肝气乘脾泄泻及中医经典药方治疗泄泻的机制提供实验依据。方法SPF级昆明小鼠随机分为正常组10只和模型组15只,造模成功后,取正常组和模型组各5只,将剩余模型组小鼠随机分为自然恢复组和痛泻要方干预组各5只,痛泻要方干预组灌胃痛泻要方治疗3 d,分别在造模成功和治疗后取肠道内容物进行微生物培养,然后记录内容物中各种菌的数量。结果造模后,模型组小鼠细菌总数、大肠埃希菌、双歧杆菌、乳杆菌的数量均有上升趋势,与正常组相比只有细菌总数[(23.9±3.51)vs(1.35±0.30),10⁸ CFU/g]差异有统计学意义(t=-11.061,P=0.008)。治疗后,痛泻要方干预组小鼠恢复了肝气乘脾泄泻引起的肠道微生物失衡,其中与自然恢复组相比痛泻要方治疗对大肠埃希菌的影响最明显[(1.63±1.19)vs(8.47±0.84),10⁶ CFU/g;t=8.124,P=0.001],细菌总数、双歧杆菌、乳杆菌数量均受影响,但差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。肝气乘脾造模组小鼠的肠道微生物定植抗力(B/E值)降低,而痛泻要方干预组的趋近于正常组。结论肝气乘脾泄泻小鼠肠道细菌总数、大肠埃希菌、双歧杆菌、乳杆菌等的数量增加,B/E值降低,痛泻要方干预能够恢复肝气乘脾泄泻引起的肠道微生物失衡,并通过调节肠道微生物以提高B/E值来治疗泄泻。     

小鼠脾虚便秘造模对肠道微生物及酶活性的影响

目的研究小鼠脾虚便秘造模对肠道微生物及酶活性的影响,为脾虚便秘的治疗提供基础。方法采用灌胃番泻叶水煎液7 d,然后控制饮食,饥饱失常;正常组灌胃等量的无菌水7 d后正常喂养,共15 d,制备小鼠脾虚便秘模型。分析小鼠体重、肠道菌群和酶活性的变化情况。结果模型组小鼠体重、体重变化率均显著小于正常组(P<0.05或P<0.01);肠道细菌总数显著小于正常组(P<0.01),大肠埃希菌、乳酸菌、双歧杆菌数和真菌均显著大于正常组(P<0.05或P<0.01);肠道淀粉酶和蛋白酶活性显著低于正常组(P<0.05或P<0.01),木聚糖酶和纤维素酶则显著高于正常组(P<0.01)。结论小鼠脾虚便秘造模影响小鼠的体重,破坏了肠道微生物的平衡,并影响肠道酶活性。     

Interaction of vasoactive intestinal peptide with rat small intestinal epithelial cells after intestinal resection

Specific binding of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and VIP-stimulated c y c l i c AMP accumulation were studied in small intestinal epithelial cells (both of crypt and villous levels) 3, 7 and 14 d after a 60% resection of the small intestine . The affinity, but not the binding capacity, of VIP receptors decreased during the adaptive hyperplastic response. Basal cyclic AMP levels were similar in cells of both control and resected rats. Resection induced a decrease of potency, but not of efficiency, of VIP on the stimulation of cyclic AMP accumulation.     

肠黏膜屏障与肠道菌群的相互关系

摘要：人类肠道中微生物群与肠道环境相互作用以维持机体健康。肠黏膜屏障主要由黏液层、肠道菌群、肠道免疫系统和肠上皮细胞本身的完整性等构成。肠道作为直接与大量菌群接触的器官,其屏障功能在肠道健康中的作用尤为显著。肠道菌群与肠道屏障相互作用,保持肠道菌群与肠道屏障相对稳定,肠道菌群参与肠道免疫反应的建立,共同建立机体天然防御系统,在保持肠道免疫的动态平衡中具有重要作用。当两者之间的平衡被打破时,可诱发功能性胃肠病（如肠易激综合征）及免疫相关性疾病（如炎症性肠病）。本文主要阐述肠黏膜屏障与肠道菌群之间的相互关系以及与肠道屏障功能障碍相关的肠道疾病。     

Murine intestinal organoids resemble intestinal epithelium in their microRNA profiles

Intestinal organoids were established as an ex vivo model of the intestinal epithelium. We investigated whether organoids resemble the intestinal epithelium in their microRNA (miRNA) profiles. Total RNA samples were obtained from crypt and villus fractions in murine intestine and from cultured organoids. Microarray analysis showed that organoids largely resembled intestinal epithelial cells in their miRNA profiles. In silico prediction followed by qRT-PCR suggested that six genes are regulated by corresponding miRNAs along the crypt-villus axis, suggesting miRNA regulation of epithelial cell renewal in the intestine. However, such expression patterns of miRNAs and their target mRNAs were not reproduced during organoids maturation. This might be due to lack of luminal factors and endocrine, nervous, and immune systems in organoids and different cell populations between in vivo epithelium and organoids. Nevertheless, we propose that intestinal organoids provide a useful in vitro model to investigate miRNA expression in intestinal epithelial cells.     

肠道微生物对肠道屏障功能完整性的维护机制研究概况

肠道微生物群是一个稳定且复杂的生态系统,可以通过形成菌膜屏障或促进肠道上皮细胞增殖分化等方式形成保护屏障,并在肠道病原菌感染和威胁期间维持和促进免疫稳态中起积极作用。本文重点叙述宿主-肠道微生物相互作用过程中抗病原菌感染的方式,以及肠道微生物参与合成抗菌化合物抵御肠道病原菌入侵和威胁的机制,为调控肠道微生物解决临床胃肠道疾病及其相关症状提供理论参考依据。     

Teleost intestinal immunology

Teleosts clearly have a more diffuse gut associated lymphoid system, which is morphological and functional clearly different from the mammalian GALT. All immune cells necessary for a local immune response are abundantly present in the gut mucosa of the species studied and local immune responses can be monitored after intestinal immunization. Fish do not produce IgA, but a special mucosal IgM isotype seems to be secreted and may (partly) be the recently described IgZ/IgT. Fish produce a pIgR in their mucosal tissues but it is smaller (2 ILD) than the 4–5 ILD pIgR of higher vertebrates. Whether teleost pIgR is transcytosed and cleaved off in the same way needs further investigation, especially because a secretory component (SC) is only reported in one species. Teleosts also have high numbers of IEL, most of them are CD3-?⁺/CD8-α⁺ and have cytotoxic and/or regulatory function. Possibly many of these cells are TCRγδ cells and they may be involved in the oral tolerance induction observed in fish. Innate immune cells can be observed in the teleost gut from first feeding onwards, but B cells appear much later in mucosal compartments compared to systemic sites. Conspicuous is the very early presence of putative T cells or their precursors in the fish gut, which together with the rag-1 expression of intestinal lymphoid cells may be an indication for an extra-thymic development of certain T cells. Teleosts can develop enteritis in their antigen transporting second gut segment and epithelial cells, IEL and eosinophils/basophils seem to play a crucial role in this intestinal inflammation model. Teleost intestine can be exploited for oral vaccination strategies and probiotic immune stimulation. A variety of encapsulation methods, to protect vaccines against degradation in the foregut, are reported with promising results but in most cases they appear not to be cost effective yet. Microbiota in fish are clearly different from terrestrial animals. In the past decade a fast increasing number of papers is dedicated to the oral administration of a variety of probiotics that can have a strong health beneficial effect, but much more attention has to be paid to the immune mechanisms behind these effects. The recent development of gnotobiotic fish models may be very helpful to study the immune effects of microbiota and probiotics in teleosts.     

The intestinal LABs

The complete gastrointestinal (GI) tract of humans is colonised soon after birth by a myriad of microbial species with a characteristic distribution depending on the location. GI-tract ecology has been experiencing a revival due to the development of molecular techniques, especially those based on 16S RNA (zRNA) genes. A richer ecosystem than previously imagined of novel species is being discovered that is significantly influenced by our host genotype. Special attention has been focused on the bifidobacteria and the lactic acid bacterial (LAB) populations, both those that are naturally present within this complex ecosystem and those that are ingested as probiotics in functional foods. Overall this interest stems from a increasing awareness of interplay between microflora, diet and the health of the host, and is further stimulated by an increasing incidence of gastrointestinal illnesses and atopy. Substantial documentation of benefits to host health has especially distinguished the LAB for multidisciplinary research aimed to determine the molecular mechanisms involved. Recent advances in molecular technologies, including high-throughput genomics-based approaches, can significantly advance our understanding of the microbe–diet–host interactions and offer valuable information for design and application of health-targeted microbes.     

Relationship between intestinal microecology and the translocation of intestinal bacteria

It is now well known that endogenous bacteria can translocate from the intestinal tract and cause many of the complicating infections seen in severely ill, hospitalized patients. Of the hundreds of bacterial species in the intestinal tract, relatively few aerobic/facultative species appear to translocate with any frequency. Van der Waaij and colleagues (1971, 1972a, 1972b) originally proposed that, by a process termed colonization resistance, strictly anaerobic bacteria prevented the intestinal overgrowth and subsequent translocation of these potentially pathogenic aerobic/facultative bacteria. Selective antimicrobial decontamination, designed to maintain colonization resistance, has been effective in reducing the incidence of infectious morbidity in high risk patients. However, the mechanisms controlling bacterial translocation remain unclear, but appear to depend on host factors, as well as on factors inherent in the microbe itself. There is both clinical and experimental evidence supporting the concept that strictly anaerobic bacteria do not readily translocate. Bacteria that are able to survive within macrophages (e.g., Salmonella species and Listeria monocytogenes) translocate easier than others, and there is recent experimental evidence that normal intestinal bacteria may translocate to the draining mesenteric lymph node within host phagocytes. There is also evidence that anaerobic bacteria translocate along with facultative species in situations associated with intestinal epithelial damage, i.e., burn trauma, oral ricinoleic acid, and acute mesenteric ischemia. In contrast, recent experimental evidence demonstrates that facultative bacteria can translocate across a histologically intact intestinal epithelium, and that the ileal absorptive cell may be at least one portal of entry prior to transport into deeper tissues. It is anticipated that further clarification of the routes and mechanisms involved in bacterial translocation will provide new insights into the treatment and prevention of a significant proportion of the infectious morbidity seen in severely ill, hospitalized patients. Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Lecture presented at the Annual Meeting of the Netherlands Society of Microbiology, Utrecht, 23 November, 1989.     

Effect of intestinal ischaemia on intestinal VIP levels and VIP interaction with intestinal epithelial cells from rat

1. The number (but not the affinity) of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) receptors in small intestinal epithelial cells decreased following intestinal ischaemia in rats as compared to sham-operated animals. 2. There was a parallel decrease of the efficiency (but not the potency) of the neuropeptide upon cyclic AMP formation at the same level after intestinal ischaemia. 3. The surgical manipulation did not modify the level of VIP immunoreactivity in the gut segment studied. 4. These results suggest that the VIPergic system is not directly involved in the high loss of water and electrolytes that appears following intestinal ischaemia.     

Neuropeptide neurotensin stimulates intestinal wound healing following chronic intestinal inflammation

Because neurotensin (NT) and its high-affinity receptor (NTR1) modulate immune responses, chloride secretion, and epithelial cell proliferation, we sought to investigate their role in the repair process that follows the development of mucosal injuries during a persistent inflammation. Colonic NT and NTR1, mRNA, and protein significantly increased only after dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced inflammatory damage developed. Colitis-induced body weight loss, colonic myeloperoxidase activity, and histological damage were significantly enhanced by SR-48642 administration, a nonpeptide NTR1 antagonist, whereas continuous NT infusion ameliorated colitis outcome. To evaluate the NT and NTR1 role in tissue healing, mucosal inflammatory injury was established administering 3% DSS for 5 days. After DSS discontinuation, mice rapidly gained weight, ulcers were healed, and colonic NT, NTR1, and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 mRNA levels were upregulated, whereas SR-48642 treatment caused a further body weight loss, ulcer enlargement, and a blunted colonic COX-2 mRNA upregulation. In a wound-healing model in vitro, NT-induced cell migration in the denuded area was inhibited by indomethacin but not by an antitransforming growth factor-beta neutralizing antibody. Furthermore, NT significantly increased COX-2 mRNA levels by 2.4-fold and stimulated PGE(2) release in HT-29 cells. These findings suggest that NT and NTR1 are part of the network activated after mucosal injuries and that NT stimulates epithelial restitution at least, in part, through a COX-2 dependent pathway.