THE RATE OF TRANSMISSION IN THE NERVE NET OF THE C?LENTERATES

Nerve net transmission in Metridium at 21°C. varies from 121 to 146 mm. per second.     

MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE NYMPHAEACEAE. V. DOES NELUMBO HAVE VESSELS?

The examination of the primary xylem of roots of Nelumbo has revealed the presence of vessel elements with intra-face, transversely-rowed to obliquely-rowed bordered pitted side walls and scalariformly perforated end walls. Whole mounts of macerated xylem, serial sections of roots, and cells through which a water suspension of India ink particles under slight or no pressure was passed, were the means of investigation. It is our opinion that this discovery does not support theories which derive monocotyledons from the Nymphaeaceae. A discussion leading to this conclusion is presented.     

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION IN THE RATE OF EVOLUTION: EFFECT OF AVAILABLE ENERGY OR FLUCTUATING ENVIRONMENT?

In a recent paper, Wright et al. (2003) argue for the hypothesis that greater biologically available energy elevates the rate of molecular evolution. However, their results are also consistent with alternative hypotheses that invoke either environmentally driven variation in effective population sizes, or natural selection, or both. The available energy gradient cited by Wright et al. is linearly correlated with temperature fluctuations, and the observed rate heterogeneity could be a consequence of this environmental variability. The distribution of phylogenetic branch lengths alone is insufficient to distinguish between the hypotheses, and complementary approaches are suggested.     

WHAT CAN MULTIPLE PHYLOGENIES SAY ABOUT THE LATITUDINAL DIVERSITY GRADIENT? A NEW LOOK AT THE TROPICAL CONSERVATISM,OUT OF THE TROPICS,AND DIVERSIFICATION RATE HYPOTHESES

We reviewed published phylogenies and selected 111 phylogenetic studies representing mammals, birds, insects, and flowering plants. We then mapped the latitudinal range of all taxa to test the relative importance of the tropical conservatism, out of the tropics, and diversification rate hypotheses in generating latitudinal diversity gradients. Most clades originated in the tropics, with diversity peaking in the zone of origin. Transitions of lineages between latitudinal zones occurred at 16–22% of the tree nodes. The most common type of transition was range expansions of tropical lineages to encompass also temperate latitudes. Thus, adaptation to new climatic conditions may not represent a major obstacle for many clades. These results contradict predictions of the tropical conservatism hypothesis (i.e., few clades colonizing extratropical latitudes), but support the out‐of‐the‐tropics model (i.e., tropical originations and subsequent latitudinal range expansions). Our results suggest no difference in diversification between tropical and temperate sister lineages; thus, diversity of tropical clades was not explained by higher diversification rates in this zone. Moreover, lineages with latitudinal stasis diversified more compared to sister lineages entering a new latitudinal zone. This preserved preexisting diversity differences between latitudinal zones and can be considered a new mechanism for why diversity tends to peak in the zone of origin.     

DOES SHADE PROLONG JUVENILE DEVELOPMENT? A MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF LEAF SHAPE CHANGES IN CUCURBIT A ARGYROSPERMA SUBSP. SORORIA (CUCURBITACEAE)

Several studies have concluded that shade extends the juvenile phase of plant development based on the prolonged production of juvenile-looking leaves along the shoot. Until now, the alternative hypothesis that leaves produced in shade converge in shape with more juvenile leaves through plastic responses of individual leaves has not been investigated. The literature has shown that differences in shape among leaves in a heteroblastic series are manifest very early in development, often at or near inception, whereas divergence in development between sun and shade leaves does not become apparent until considerably later. This study is the first to distinguish between these alternatives by comparing the developmental morphology of young leaves of the heteroblastic plant Cucurbita argyrosperma subsp. sororia. Differences in shapes of mature leaves along the shoot in sun and shade were quantified in terms of leaf area, perimeter, and shape using truss analysis. Developmental morphology from initiation through expansion was examined for representative transition and for later (adult) leaves using scanning electron microscopy and allometry. Determinants of shape established very early in development were the same for leaves at the same position grown in sun and shade. Differences in morphology between sun and shade leaves at the same position did not arise until these leaves reached lamina lengths greater than 1,000 μm. Thus, the less-lobed, more juvenile looking leaf produced at later positions in the shade arose through later developmental responses of individual leaves to shade, rather than through a prolonged phase of juvenile development.     

WHY DO SOME SIBLINGS ATTACK EACH OTHER? COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF AGGRESSION IN AVIAN BROODS

In many parentally fed species, siblings compete for food not only by begging and scrambling, but also by violently attacking each other. This aggressive competition has mostly been studied in birds, where it is often combined with dominance subordination, aggressive intimidation, and siblicide. Previous experimental and theoretical studies proposed several life-history, morphological, and behavioral variables that may facilitate the evolution of broodmate aggression, and explain its taxonomic distribution. Here we apply phylogenetic comparative analyses for the first time to test the influence of five hypothesized facilitators of the evolution of broodmate aggression, analyzing 69 species in seven avian families using two quantitative measures of aggression: incidence and intensity. We show that incidence and intensity of aggression increase with long nestling periods and indirect feeding, and small brood size is associated with intense aggression. Large food parcels were not correlated with either the incidence or intensity of aggression. Our study suggests that indirect feeding, long nestling periods, and small broods, possibly in combination with other factors, have tended to favor the evolution of aggressive broodmate competition.     

HOW DO GEOLOGICAL SAMPLING BIASES AFFECT STUDIES OF MORPHOLOGICAL EVOLUTION IN DEEP TIME? A CASE STUDY OF PTEROSAUR (REPTILIA: ARCHOSAURIA) DISPARITY

A fundamental contribution of paleobiology to macroevolutionary theory has been the illumination of deep time patterns of diversification. However, recent work has suggested that taxonomic diversity counts taken from the fossil record may be strongly biased by uneven spatiotemporal sampling. Although morphological diversity (disparity) is also frequently used to examine evolutionary radiations, no empirical work has yet addressed how disparity might be affected by uneven fossil record sampling. Here, we use pterosaurs (Mesozoic flying reptiles) as an exemplar group to address this problem. We calculate multiple disparity metrics based upon a comprehensive anatomical dataset including a novel phylogenetic correction for missing data, statistically compare these metrics to four geological sampling proxies, and use multiple regression modeling to assess the importance of uneven sampling and exceptional fossil deposits (Lagerstätten). We find that range‐based disparity metrics are strongly affected by uneven fossil record sampling, and should therefore be interpreted cautiously. The robustness of variance‐based metrics to sample size and geological sampling suggests that they can be more confidently interpreted as reflecting true biological signals. In addition, our results highlight the problem of high levels of missing data for disparity analyses, indicating a pressing need for more theoretical and empirical work.     

THE ANNUAL RHYTHM OF CAMBIAL ACTIVITY IN TWO WOODY SPECIES OF THE CHILEAN “MATORRAL”

The annual rhythm of cambial activity is compared in Proustia cuneifolia and Acacia caven, two typical shrubs of the “matorral” in the semiarid region of central Chile. Proustia, a drought deciduous shrub, shows a typical desert cambial rhythm, highly sensitive to rainfall. The growth activity of this species is limited to the periods of adequate moisture. Acacia is an evergreen whose cambial activity is observed almost throughout the year; it is not synchronous with rainfall. Adaptation in this species seems to consist in developing long roots able to tap underground water. These results indicate that both shrubs, although growing together, have different adaptive strategies to the same xerophytic conditions.     

DOES THE BCR/ABL‐MEDIATED INCREASE IN THE EFFICACY OF DNA REPAIR PLAY A ROLE IN THE DRUG RESISTANCE OF CANCER CELLS?

BCR/ABL oncogenic tyrosine kinase is responsible for the pathogenesis of Philadelphia chromosome-positive human leukemia and is generated by a specific reciprocal chromosome translocation, t(9;22)(q34-;q11+). We examined the role of DNA repair in therapeutic drug resistance to idarubicin in the murine pro-B lymphoid cell line BaF3 and its BCR/ABL -transformed clone. These cells can be used as models of human leukemias. The MTT assay revealed that BCR/ABL -transformed cells displayed resistance to idarubicin in the range 0.3-0.5 microm, compared with the control BaF3 cells. Idarubicin at 0.3 and 1 microm induced DNA damage in the form of strand-breaks and/or alkali labile sites in both transformed and control cells in comet assays. The BCR/ABL -transformed cells needed only 60 min to remove damage to their DNA, whereas controls took 120 min. We hypothesize that this observed increase in the efficacy of repair in BCR/ABL- positive cells is involved in their resistance to idarubicin.     

DOES MATE LIMITATION IN SELF‐INCOMPATIBLE SPECIES PROMOTE THE EVOLUTION OF SELFING? THE CASE OF LEAVENWORTHIA ALABAMICA

Genetic diversity at the S‐locus controlling self‐incompatibility (SI) is often high because of negative frequency‐dependent selection. In species with highly patchy spatial distributions, genetic drift can overwhelm balancing selection and cause stochastic loss of S‐alleles. Natural selection may favor the breakdown of SI in populations with few S‐alleles because low S‐allele diversity constrains the seed production of self‐incompatible plants. We estimated S‐allele diversity, effective population sizes, and migration rates in Leavenworthia alabamica, a self‐incompatible mustard species restricted to discrete habitat patches in rocky glades. Patterns of polymorphism were investigated at the S‐locus and 15 neutral microsatellites in three large and three small populations with 100‐fold variation in glade size. Populations on larger glades maintained more S‐alleles, but all populations were estimated to harbor at least 20 S‐alleles, and mate availabilities typically exceeded 0.80, which is consistent with little mate limitation in nature. Estimates of the effective size (N_e) in each population ranged from 600 to 1600, and estimated rates of migration (m) ranged from 3 × 10⁻⁴ to nearly 1 × 10⁻³. According to theoretical models, there is limited opportunity for genetic drift to reduce S‐allele diversity in populations with these attributes. Although pollinators or resources limit seed production in small glades, limited S‐allele diversity does not appear to be a factor promoting the incipient breakdown of SI in populations of this species that were studied.     

FROM MORE TO FEWER? TESTING AN ALLEGEDLY PERVASIVE TREND IN THE EVOLUTION OF MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

While evolutionary trends have long received much attention and have been widely disputed, new methods are now allowing the testing of directional hypotheses with increased rigor. Here, we test a general hypothesis about the way many kinds of discrete characters are thought to evolve, termed oligomerization. This is the tendency for serial structures (such as arthropod body and appendage segments) or armature (such as spines) to evolve primarily through loss and fusion. Focusing on the Crustacea, we use maximum likelihood methods to test for directional evolution in a large sample (> 500) of discrete traits, analyzed against molecular-based phylogenies. We find evidence for a significant trend toward trait loss, in accordance with the reduction principle. However, this trend is far from ubiquitous, with many characters exhibiting a reconstructed bias toward gains. These results suggest that caution must be used before drawing conclusions about which taxa are \"primitive\" or about the directionality of morphological shifts in the absence of phylogenetic analysis. Nevertheless, oligomerization-as a trend rather than a law-may be an important process that influences evolutionary trajectories from both morphological and functional perspectives.     

RECONNECTING CELL AND ANIMAL LINEAGES: WHAT DO CELL LINEAGES TELL US ABOUT THE EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SPIRALIA?

Cell lineage studies in the clade Eutrochozoa, and especially the Spiralia, remains a rich and relatively untapped source for understanding broad evolutionary developmental problems; including (1) the utility of cell timing formation for phylogenetic hypotheses; (2) the evolution of cell timing changes and its relation to heterochronic patterns; (3) stereotypy or lack thereof in rates of change of cell growth during evolution and its relation to both evolutionary history and current usage; and (4) how mosaic cleavage timing variation may be expected to differ from other groups. A compilation of available cell timing information was made from previous studies where each division was explicitly followed and the total number of cells followed was greater than 24. From that compilation, we performed a series of heuristic and quantitative analyses, including a phylogenetic analysis using cell timing data as characters and analyses of timing variation across all taxa. Our results show that: (1) cell lineage data reconstructs a phylogenetic hypothesis that has similarities, especially among the Mollusca. to the patterns found in morphological and molecular analyses; (2) the mesentoblast (4d) is a unique cell compared to other cell in that it speeds up and slows down relative to other cells in taxa with both unequal and equal cell sizes; (3) some cells that form in the same quartet at the same point in the cell lineage hierarchy have much lower variations than analogous other cells, arguing for architectural constraint or stabilizing selection acting on those cells; and (4) although variation in cell timing generally increases during development, timing of formation of progeny cells in the first quartet has lower variation than the parent cells, arguing that some regulation-like behavior might be present.