Functional conservation areas and the future of Africa’s wildlife

Ungulate populations in African conservation areas (CAs) are in widespread decline, which can largely be attributed to a lack of functionality of the area encompassed by the CAs themselves. We present evidence from a wide range of African CAs showing that they do not encompass both the functional wet‐ and dry‐season resources that ungulates traditionally migrated between. Before human populations and economic development had grown to levels where they interfered with migrations outside the CAs, ungulates were able to make use of their traditional seasonal resources but this is becoming increasingly difficult and we are now seeing the effects of this restriction of movement on ungulate population numbers. New innovative strategies are required for the conservation of African wildlife. An urgent Africa‐wide survey is needed to establish past and present functional resources in and around CAs and to prioritize conservation regions that are most functional. In addition, innovative attempts need to be made to reconsolidate functional seasonal resources within revised expanded protected areas.     

Genetic analysis shows low levels of hybridization between African wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) and domestic cats (F. s. catus) in South Africa

Hybridization between domestic and wild animals is a major concern for biodiversity conservation, and as habitats become increasingly fragmented, conserving biodiversity at all levels, including genetic, becomes increasingly important. Except for tropical forests and true deserts, African wildcats occur across the African continent; however, almost no work has been carried out to assess its genetic status and extent of hybridization with domestic cats. For example, in South Africa it has been argued that the long‐term viability of maintaining pure wildcat populations lies in large protected areas only, isolated from human populations. Two of the largest protected areas in Africa, the Kgalagadi Transfrontier and Kruger National Parks, as well as the size of South Africa and range of landscape uses, provide a model situation to assess how habitat fragmentation and heterogeneity influences the genetic purity of African wildcats. Using population genetic and home range data, we examined the genetic purity of African wildcats and their suspected hybrids across South Africa, including areas within and outside of protected areas. Overall, we found African wildcat populations to be genetically relatively pure, but instances of hybridization and a significant relationship between the genetic distinctiveness (purity) of wildcats and human population pressure were evident. The genetically purest African wildcats were found in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, while samples from around Kruger National Park showed cause for concern, especially combined with the substantial human population density along the park's boundary. While African wildcat populations in South Africa generally appear to be genetically pure, with low levels of hybridization, our genetic data do suggest that protected areas may play an important role in maintaining genetic purity by reducing the likelihood of contact with domestic cats. We suggest that approaches such as corridors between protected areas are unlikely to remain effective for wildcat conservation, as the proximity to human settlements around these areas is projected to increase the wild/domestic animal interface. Thus, large, isolated protected areas will become increasingly important for wildcat conservation and efforts need to be made to prevent introduction of domestic cats into these areas.     

The interactions between humans and mammals in Africa in relation to conservation: a review

Most human-mammal interactions are detrimental to wild mammals. In Africa, mammalian population numbers and the geographical distribution of many species have been reduced due to hunting, pastoralism, habitat modification and disease control. The importance of each of these factors depends on the species, its location and habitat, and density of the human population. In contrast, some small- and medium-sized species have benefited from human activities, and there has been an increase in the population numbers of some species in well-managed and well-protected conservation areas. There appears to be a strong negative correlation (at least for some well-studied species) between density of humans and density of mammals. Recently, several African countries, notably in southern Africa, have developed the principle of integrated rural development in which local people are involved in the planning and administration of their traditional lands. Managed conservation areas are an integral part of good land-use policies. Surveys indicate that most Africans living close to conservation areas, especially those with a higher level of education, understand and support the ideals of conservation; nevertheless it is important that the benefits of conservation and integrated development (such as money, jobs, and food) directly benefit the local people. Conservation of mammals (and all other species) in Africa in the future will only succeed if there is participation at the grass roots level, better food production in designated agricultural areas, reduction in the rate of increase of human populations, stabilization of human densities, and active programmes of conservation education.     

Autosomal and mtDNA Markers Affirm the Distinctiveness of Lions in West and Central Africa

The evolutionary history of a species is key for understanding the taxonomy and for the design of effective management strategies for species conservation. The knowledge about the phylogenetic position of the lion (Panthera leo) in West/Central Africa is largely based on mitochondrial markers. Previous studies using mtDNA only have shown this region to hold a distinct evolutionary lineage. In addition, anthropogenic factors have led to a strong decline in West/Central African lion numbers, thus, the conservation value of these populations is particularly high. Here, we investigate whether autosomal markers are concordant with previously described phylogeographic patterns, and confirm the unique position of the West/Central African lion. Analysis of 20 microsatellites and 1,454 bp of the mitochondrial DNA in 16 lion populations representing the entire geographic range of the species found congruence in both types of markers, identifying four clusters: 1) West/Central Africa, 2) East Africa, 3) Southern Africa and 4) India. This is not in line with the current taxonomy, as defined by the IUCN, which only recognizes an African and an Asiatic subspecies. There are no indications that genetic diversity in West/Central Africa lions is lower than in either East or Southern Africa, however, given this genetic distinction and the recent declines of lion numbers in this region, we strongly recommend prioritization of conservation projects in West/Central Africa. As the current taxonomic nomenclature does not reflect the evolutionary history of the lion, we suggest that a taxonomic revision of the lion is warranted.     

Densities of mammals in partially protected areas: the Katavi ecosystem of western Tanzania

1. In Africa the majority of conservation areas sanction some sort of human activities within their borders but few of them are part of community-based conservation schemes. The effectiveness of these state-owned, partially protected areas in conserving mammalian fauna is largely unknown.
2. Large and medium-sized mammal densities in three different sorts of partially protected area were compared to mammal densities in an adjacent national park in western Tanzania by driving 2953 km of strip transects over a 14-month period.
3. In a Game Controlled Area that permitted temporary settlement, cattle grazing and tourist big game hunting, mammal diversity and mammal densities were relatively high. In a Forest Reserve that permitted limited hardwood extraction and resident hunting, most large species were absent. In a third, Open Area that allowed settlement, cattle grazing, firewood collection and beekeeping activities, mammal diversity and densities were again low but some large ungulates still used the area seasonally.
4. The chief factors responsible for lowered mammal densities outside the Park were illegal hunting, especially in close proximity to town, and to a lesser extent, resident hunting quotas that were too high.
5. These data suggest that state-owned conservation areas permitting human activities within their borders cannot be relied upon as a means of conserving large and middle-sized mammals in Africa.
6. Two methods are being employed to ameliorate this problem in Africa: excluding people from conservation areas while upgrading ground protection effort, and initiation of community-based conservation schemes. As yet, however, very few quantitative data are available to evaluate the efficacy of these methods in enhancing mammal populations.     

Why is biodiversity data-deficiency an ongoing conservation dilemma in Africa?

Recent reports illustrate deficiencies in knowledge about current conditions and long-term trends in population sizes of hundreds of African plants and animals’ species. In this commentary, I discuss the lack of standardized data for assessing and monitoring biodiversity in Africa. I present my own views on the causes for these knowledge and data gaps, their consequences for conservation, and future directions that could improve the current situation.There are many reasons for lack of standardized data including; ongoing conflicts and political instability in many biodiversity-rich countries; absence of regular and policy-driven monitoring programs; weak facilities; and irregular or insufficient funding. Existing biodiversity monitoring initiatives are often short-term, poorly-designed surveys, largely dependent on volunteer researchers or international partners, biased towards large “charismatic” animal species, and published in difficult-to-access outlets. Consequently, up-to-date and rigorous reports about conditions and trends of African biodiversity are limited, and conservation planning, comparative studies and accurate valuation of ecosystem services continue to be difficult.Urgent actions include: 1) commitments and support of local governments to implement effective conservation monitoring programs; 2) establishment of a network of carefully designed long-term and continent-wide monitoring initiatives for endangered species and biodiversity; and 3) involvement of universities, research centers, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and local communities in such monitoring efforts. Such actions could stimulate further in-depth studies and systematic analysis of the root causes and solutions for the decades-long African biodiversity knowledge gap. Examples of highly needed systematic analysis and documentation in the coming efforts towards filling up the biodiversity data gap in Africa should clearly define biodiversity data-deficiency by taxonomic groups and by countries.     

Future hotspots of terrestrial mammal loss

Current levels of endangerment and historical trends of species and habitats are the main criteria used to direct conservation efforts globally. Estimates of future declines, which might indicate different priorities than past declines, have been limited by the lack of appropriate data and models. Given that much of conservation is about anticipating and responding to future threats, our inability to look forward at a global scale has been a major constraint on effective action. Here, we assess the geography and extent of projected future changes in suitable habitat for terrestrial mammals within their present ranges. We used a global earth-system model, IMAGE, coupled with fine-scale habitat suitability models and parametrized according to four global scenarios of human development. We identified the most affected countries by 2050 for each scenario, assuming that no additional conservation actions other than those described in the scenarios take place. We found that, with some exceptions, most of the countries with the largest predicted losses of suitable habitat for mammals are in Africa and the Americas. African and North American countries were also predicted to host the most species with large proportional global declines. Most of the countries we identified as future hotspots of terrestrial mammal loss have little or no overlap with the present global conservation priorities, thus confirming the need for forward-looking analyses in conservation priority setting. The expected growth in human populations and consumption in hotspots of future mammal loss mean that local conservation actions such as protected areas might not be sufficient to mitigate losses. Other policies, directed towards the root causes of biodiversity loss, are required, both in Africa and other parts of the world.     

Community-based mental health care in Africa: mental health workers’ views

The World Health Organization (WHO) has for long proposed the development of community-based mental health services worldwide. However, the progress toward community mental health care in most African countries is still hampered by a lack of resources, with specialist psychiatric care essentially based in large, centrally located mental hospitals. It is again time to reconsider the direction of mental health care in Africa. Based on a small inquiry to a number of experienced mental health professionals in sub-Saharan Africa, we discuss what a community concept of mental health care might mean in Africa. There is a general agreement that mental health services should be integrated in primary health care. A critical issue for success of this model is perceived to be provision of appropriate supervision and continuing education for primary care workers. The importance of collaboration between modern medicine and traditional healers is stressed and the paper ends in a plea for WHO to take the initiative and develop mental health services according to the special needs and the socio-cultural conditions prevailing in sub-Saharan Africa.     

Updated list of Collembola species currently recorded from South Africa

Understanding the abundance and richness of species is one of the most fundamental steps in effecting their conservation. Despite global recognition of the significance of the below-ground component of diversity for ecosystem functioning, the soil remains a poorly studied terrestrial ecosystem. In South Africa, knowledge is increasing for a variety of soil faunal groups, but many still remain poorly understood. We have started to address this gap in the knowledge of South African soil biodiversity by focusing on the Collembola in an integrated project that encompasses systematics, barcoding and ecological assessments. Here we provide an updated list of the Collembola species from South Africa. A total of 124 species from 61 genera and 17 families has been recorded, of which 75 are considered endemic, 24 widespread, and 25 introduced. This total number of species excludes the 36 species we consider to be dubious. From the published data, Collembola species richness is high compared to other African countries, but low compared to European countries. This is largely a consequence of poor sampling in the African region, as our discovery of many new species in South Africa demonstrates. Our analyses also show that much ongoing work will be required before a reasonably comprehensive and spatially explicit picture of South Africa’s springtail fauna can be provided, which may well exceed 1000 species. Such work will be necessary to help South Africa meet its commitments to biodiversity conservation, especially in the context of the 2020 Aichi targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity.     

The challenges of community-based conservation in developing countries—A case study from Lake Alaotra,Madagascar

Nature conservation in tropical developing countries is particularly challenging as the human population is highly dependent on natural resources. Several approaches, such as small-scale, community-based conservation projects aiming to generate benefits for the community, have been applied to alleviate poverty and at the same time promote conservation. In Madagascar such projects are considered a promising alternative as large-scale conservation often fails. However, few evaluations to date have analyzed both ecological and socioeconomic aspects. Our study focuses on the ecological and socioeconomic aspects of a small-scale, community-based conservation project, called “Park Bandro”, at Lake Alaotra, Madagascar. At first glance, the area seems to conserve its natural flora and fauna. However, closer examination shows that the park suffers from isolation, disconnectivity and illegal activities, while its management suffers from an unequal distribution of benefits and a lack of recognition at community level. We use our results to discuss where challenges arise and to draw recommendations which will be relevant beyond Lake Alaotra. We show that institutional settings can foster the detachment of local management associations from the community and facilitate elite capture. Existing conflicts of interests and a lack of transparency in administration hinders long-term success. The managerial framework needs to be revised and adapted to foster capacity building, providing a basis for negotiation with the community and the integration of different social groups.     

Wildlife harvesting guidelines for community-based wildlife management: a southern African perspective

African wildlife populations and their habitats are dwindling outside ofstate-protected areas due to escalating human demands on natural resources,while the effective enforcement of conservation legislation is impracticableacross most of the continent. A particular conservation crisis is looming insouthern Africa, where extensive wildlife areas are rapidly giving way tosubsistence agropastoralism. The concept of community-based wildlife management(CBWM) has been embraced by donor agencies as a hopeful solution in areas whereadequate wildlife resources persist and agricultural potential is marginal. Theconservation value of CBWM depends, however, on communities having specificinformation to evaluate the sustainable benefits of wildlife in comparison withalternative landuse options. Furthermore, simple but scientifically soundmonitoring procedures are required to ensure that the offtake from wildlifepopulations is kept within sustainable limits. This paper draws together keyecological issues of relevance to CBWM in southern African savannas andidentifies topics requiring further attention from ecologists. The aim is toassist conservation and development agencies in providing prompt and appropriatetechnical support to communities in areas where opportunities for CBWM stillexist but could soon be foreclosed.     

Multiple dispersals and modern human origins

Despite a massive endeavour, the problem of modern human origins not only remains unresolved, but is usually reduced to “Out of Africa” versus multiregional evolution. Not all would agree, but evidence for a single recent origin is accumulating. Here, we want to go beyond this debate and explore within the “Out of Africa” framework an issue that has not been fully addressed: the mechanism by which modern human diversity has developed. We believe there is no clear rubicon of modern Homo sapiens, and that multiple dispersals occurred from a morphologically variable population in Africa. Pre-existing African diversity is thus crucial to the way human diversity developed outside Africa. The pattern of diversity—behavioural, linguistic, morphological and genetic—can be interpreted as the result of dispersals, colonisation, differentiation and subsequent dispersals overlaid on former population ranges. The first dispersals would have originated in Africa from where two different geographical routes were possible, one through Ethiopia/Arabia towards South Asia, and one through North Africa/Middle East towards Eurasia.     

Is there a future for elephants in West Africa?

The elephants of West Africa have experienced a long history of human disturbance. Before 1800 they were much affected by the precolonial empires of the savanna and Sahelian zones, the trans-Saharan trade routes, and the coastal trade established by the Europeans. During the 19th century, the increasing demand for ivory from Europe and North America, the European penetration of the region, and the evolution of breech-loading rifles devastated the remaining elephants. The elephant population of West Africa collapsed before the outbreak of World War I because of intense hunting for ivory. This collapse pre-empted the decline that would have occurred anyway due to the rapid growth of the human population and consequent loss of habitat. Elephants now find themselves in about 70 small isolated populations that cover only 5% of the region. These fragments are very vulnerable – whether in the arid lands or the humid forests – to poaching and general human disturbance. There are few data on numbers; most of the population estimates are guesses. Two-thirds of the populations are thought to consist of fewer than 200 animals and therefore have a low probability of surviving the next century. As more habitat is lost to human activities, West African elephants will soon remain only in protected areas. But many parks and reserves are managed poorly and cannot offer effective protection; they do not guarantee a future for elephants. In addition, their crop-raiding habit makes elephants unpopular in rural communities surrounding protected areas. Human populations are expected to continue growing and resources for conservation are scarce. The future of West African elephants lies in a small network of well-protected areas.     

The Lion in West Africa Is Critically Endangered

The African lion has declined to <35,000 individuals occupying 25% of its historic range. The situation is most critical for the geographically isolated populations in West Africa, where the species is considered regionally endangered. Elevating their conservation significance, recent molecular studies establish the genetic distinctiveness of West and Central African lions from other extant African populations. Interventions to save West African lions are urgently required. However formulating effective conservation strategies has been hampered by a lack of data on the species'' current distribution, status, and potential management deficiencies of protected areas (PAs) harboring lions. Our study synthesized available expert opinion and field data to close this knowledge gap, and formulate recommendations for the conservation of West African lions. We undertook lion surveys in 13 large (>500 km²) PAs and compiled evidence of lion presence/absence for a further eight PAs. All PAs were situated within Lion Conservation Units, geographical units designated as priority lion areas by wildlife experts at a regional lion conservation workshop in 2005. Lions were confirmed in only 4 PAs, and our results suggest that only 406 (273–605) lions remain in West Africa, representing <250 mature individuals. Confirmed lion range is estimated at 49,000 km², or 1.1% of historical range in West Africa. PAs retaining lions were larger than PAs without lions and had significantly higher management budgets. We encourage revision of lion taxonomy, to recognize the genetic distinctiveness of West African lions and highlight their potentially unique conservation value. Further, we call for listing of the lion as critically endangered in West Africa, under criterion C2a(ii) for populations with <250 mature individuals. Finally, considering the relative poverty of lion range states in West Africa, we call for urgent mobilization of investment from the international community to assist range states to increase management effectiveness of PAs retaining lions.     

Signatures of the preagricultural peopling processes in sub-Saharan Africa as revealed by the phylogeography of early Y chromosome lineages

The study of Y chromosome variation has helped reconstruct demographic events associated with the spread of languages, agriculture, and pastoralism in sub-Saharan Africa, but little attention has been given to the early history of the continent. In order to overcome this lack of knowledge, we carried out a phylogeographic analysis of haplogroups A and B in a broad data set of sub-Saharan populations. These two lineages are particularly suitable for this objective because they are the two most deeply rooted branches of the Y chromosome genealogy. Their distribution is almost exclusively restricted to sub-Saharan Africa where their frequency peaks at 65% in groups of foragers. The combined high-resolution single nucleotide polymorphism analysis with short tandem repeats variation of their subclades reveals strong geographic and population structure for both haplogroups. This has allowed us to identify specific lineages related to regional preagricultural dynamics in different areas of sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, we observed signatures of relatively recent contact, both among Pygmies and between them and Khoisan speaker groups from southern Africa, thus contributing to the understanding of the complex evolutionary relationships among African hunter-gatherers. Finally, by revising the phylogeography of the very early human Y chromosome lineages, we have obtained support for the role of southern Africa as a sink, rather than a source, of the first migrations of modern humans from eastern and central parts of the continent. These results open new perspectives on the early history of Homo sapiens in Africa, with particular attention to areas of the continent where human fossil remains and archaeological data are scant.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation of domestic sheep (Ovis aries) in Kenya

The history of domestic sheep (Ovis aries) in Africa remains largely unknown. After being first introduced from the Near East, sheep gradually spread through the African continent with pastoral societies. The eastern part of Africa was important either for the first diffusion of sheep southward or for putative secondary introductions from the Arabian Peninsula or southern Asia. We analysed mitochondrial DNA control region sequences of 91 domestic sheep from Kenya and found a high diversity of matrilines from the widespread haplogroup B, whereas only a single individual from haplogroup A was detected. Our phylogeography analyses of more than 500 available mitochondrial DNA sequences also identified ancestral haplotypes that were probably first introduced in Africa and are now widely distributed. Moreover, we found no evidence of an admixture between East and West African sheep. The presence of shared haplotypes in eastern and ancient southern African sheep suggests the possible southward movement of sheep along the eastern part of Africa. Finally, we found no evidence of an extensive introduction of sheep from southern Asia into Africa via the Indian Ocean trade. The overall findings on the phylogeography of East African domestic sheep set the grounds for understanding the origin and subsequent movements of sheep in Africa. The richness of maternal lineages in Kenyan breeds is of prime importance for future conservation and breeding programmes.     

Impact of war on conservation: Rwandan environment and wildlife in agony

Among the crucial problems that affect conservation in less developed countries are the high human pressure on natural habitats, poverty, low conservation education and lack of integration of local population. However, political and ethnic conflicts, which occur around the world and particularly in African countries, significantly affect all sectors of human society, the environment and wildlife. In this paper, we discuss the consequences of the Rwandan civil war of 1990–1994, recognized as one of the major tragedies of the 20th century, with a particular focus on protected areas and conservation bodies in the country.     

Assessing re-introductions of the African Wild dog (Lycaon pictus) in the Limpopo Valley Conservancy, South Africa, using the stochastic simulation program VORTEX

The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) is one of Africa's most endangered species and therefore classified as endangered by IUCN. Earlier distributions included most of Africa but currently the African wild dog only has populations larger than 300 individuals in three countries (Botswana, Tanzania and South Africa). In 1998, a plan was launched in South Africa to manage sub-populations of the African wild dog in several small, geographically isolated, conservation areas. This management program involved the reintroduction of wild dogs into suitable conservation areas and periodic translocations among them. We used the stochastic population simulation model VORTEX to evaluate the Limpopo Valley Conservancy in the north of South Africa, as a possible reintroduction site for African wild dogs. The simulations showed that the size of the initial population released only had a small effect on the population dynamics. However, when individuals were supplemented and harvested over a longer period the probability of persistence increased. Number of females breeding, male mortality, and carrying capacity were key factors in the population dynamics, but according to VORTEX the severity of natural catastrophes had the greatest influence on the extinction risk and inbreeding. We suggest that the reintroduction program may be successful, if areas are properly secured, the dogs are held in a boma before release, wild animals or at least a mix of wild and captive animals are used for the release and the animals are vaccinated against rabies. It is, however, essential to continue monitoring followed by modelling efforts to re-evaluate the success of the reintroduction program.     

Conflicting human interests over the re-introduction of endangered wild dogs in South Africa

In South Africa, a plan was launched to manage separate sub-populations of endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in several small, geographically isolated, conservation areas as a single meta-population. This intensive management approach involves the re-introduction of wild dogs into suitable conservation areas and periodic translocations among them. To assess the attitudes towards re-introduced wild dogs, we conducted a questionnaire survey of multiple stakeholders—local community members, private landowners and tourists—in and around Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP), one of the meta-population conservation areas. Here, we document conflicting human interests over the re-introduced wild dogs. Tourists in HiP, on the one hand, expressed overwhelmingly positive opinions about wild dogs across personal details of the respondents, but especially after having seen free-ranging wild dogs. On the other hand, we found misconceptions and perceptions that were more negative among the rural population around HiP, again largely independent of personal details of the participants, although educated respondents voiced more favourable views of wild dogs. These negative attitudes were in particular due to perceived and real threats of livestock losses. In a follow-up questionnaire survey, we also discovered apparent shortcomings of a previous short-lived conservation education programme among the local communities adjacent to HiP. Consequently, the mitigation of the conflict between wild dogs and rural people requires an understanding of the conditions under which livestock predation occurs, the encouragement of practices that prevent such predation, and increasing local tolerance of co-existence with wild dogs through both economic and non-monetary incentive schemes as well as continued conservation education.     

Mitochondrial DNA structure in North Africa reveals a genetic discontinuity in the Nile Valley

Human population movements in North Africa have been mostly restricted to an east-west direction due to the geographical barriers imposed by the Sahara Desert and the Mediterranean Sea. Although these barriers have not completely impeded human migrations, genetic studies have shown that an east-west genetic gradient exists. However, the lack of genetic information of certain geographical areas and the focus of some studies in parts of the North African landscape have limited the global view of the genetic pool of North African populations. To provide a global view of the North African genetic landscape and population structure, we have analyzed ～2,300 North African mitochondrial DNA lineages (including 269 new sequences from Libya, in the first mtDNA study of the general Libyan population). Our results show a clinal distribution of certain haplogroups, some of them more frequent in Western (H, HV0, L1b, L3b, U6) or Eastern populations (L0a, R0a, N1b, I, J) that might be the result of human migrations from the Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, and Europe. Despite this clinal pattern, a genetic discontinuity is found in the Libyan/Egyptian border, suggesting a differential gene flow in the Nile River Valley. Finally, frequency of the post-LGM subclades H1 and H3 is predominant in Libya within the H sequences, highlighting the magnitude of the LGM expansion in North Africa.