A bee’s eye view of remarkable floral colour patterns in the south-west Australian biodiversity hotspot revealed by false colour photography

Background and AimsColour pattern is a key cue of bee attraction selectively driving the appeal of pollinators. It comprises the main colour of the flower with extra fine patterns, indicating a reward focal point such as nectar, nectaries, pollen, stamens and floral guides. Such advertising of floral traits guides visitation by the insects, ensuring precision in pollen gathering and deposition. The study, focused in the Southwest Australian Floristic Region, aimed to spot bee colour patterns that are usual and unusual, missing, accomplished by mimicry of pollen and anthers, and overlapping between mimic-model species in floral mimicry cases.MethodsFloral colour patterns were examined by false colour photography in 55 flower species of multiple highly diverse natural plant communities in south-west Australia. False colour photography is a method to transform a UV photograph and a colour photograph into a false colour photograph based on the trichromatic vision of bees. This method is particularly effective for rapid screening of large numbers of flowers for the presence of fine-scale bee-sensitive structures and surface roughness that are not detectable using standard spectrophotometry.Key ResultsBee- and bird-pollinated flowers showed the expected but also some remarkable and unusual previously undetected floral colour pattern syndromes. Typical colour patterns include cases of pollen and flower mimicry and UV-absorbing targets. Among the atypical floral colour patterns are unusual white and UV-reflecting flowers of bee-pollinated plants, bicoloured floral guides, consistently occurring in Fabaceae spp., and flowers displaying a selective attractiveness to birds only. In the orchid genera (Diuris and Thelymitra) that employ floral mimicry of model species, we revealed a surprising mimicry phenomenon of anthers mimicked in turn by model species.ConclusionThe study demonstrates the applicability of ‘bee view’ colour imaging for deciphering pollinator cues in a biodiverse flora with potential to be applied to other eco regions. The technique provides an exciting opportunity for indexing floral traits on a biome scale to establish pollination drivers of ecological and evolutionary relevance.     

Reduced visitation to buzz‐pollinated Cyanella hyacinthoides in the presence of other pollen sources in the hyperdiverse Cape Floristic Region

Many plant species have floral morphologies that restrict access to floral resources, such as pollen or nectar, and only a subset of floral visitors can perform the handling behaviors required to extract restricted resources. Due to the time and energy required to extract resources from morphologically complex flowers, these plant species potentially compete for pollinators with co‐flowering plants that have more easily accessible resources. A widespread floral mechanism restricting access to pollen is the presence of tubular anthers that open through small pores or slits (poricidal anthers). Some bees have evolved the capacity to remove pollen from poricidal anthers using vibrations, giving rise to the phenomenon of buzz‐pollination. These bee vibrations that are produced for pollen extraction are presumably energetically costly, and to date, few studies have investigated whether buzz‐pollinated flowers may be at a disadvantage when competing for pollinators’ attention with plant species that present unrestricted pollen resources. Here, we studied Cyanella hyacinthoides (Tecophilaeaceae), a geophyte with poricidal anthers in the hyperdiverse Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, to assess how the composition and relative abundance of flowers with easily accessible pollen affect bee visitation to a buzz‐pollinated plant. We found that the number of pollinator species of C. hyacinthoides was not influenced by community composition. However, visitation rates to C. hyacinthoides were reduced when the relative abundances of flowers with more accessible resources were high. Visitation rates were strongly associated with petal color, showing that flower color is important in mediating these interactions. We conclude that buzz‐pollinated plants might be at a competitive disadvantage when many easily accessible pollen sources are available, particularly when competitor species share its floral signals.     

Pollen and stamen mimicry: the alpine flora as a case study

Many melittophilous flowers display yellow and UV-absorbing floral guides that resemble the most common colour of pollen and anthers. The yellow coloured anthers and pollen and the similarly coloured flower guides are described as key features of a pollen and stamen mimicry system. In this study, we investigated the entire angiosperm flora of the Alps with regard to visually displayed pollen and floral guides. All species were checked for the presence of pollen- and stamen-imitating structures using colour photographs. Most flowering plants of the Alps display yellow pollen and at least 28% of the species display pollen- or stamen-imitating structures. The most frequent types of pollen and stamen imitations were (mostly yellow and UV-absorbing) colour patches on petals (65% of species displaying imitations), patterns of inflorescences (18%), stamen-like pistils (10%), and staminodes (6%), as well as three-dimensional structures such as convex lower lips and filamental hairs (<5%). Dichogamous and diclinous species display pollen- and stamen-imitating structures more often than non-dichogamous and non-diclinous species, respectively. The visual similarity between the androecium and other floral organs is attributed to mimicry, i.e. deception caused by the flower visitor’s inability to discriminate between model and mimic, sensory exploitation, and signal standardisation among floral morphs, flowering phases, and co-flowering species. We critically discuss deviant pollen and stamen mimicry concepts and evaluate the frequent evolution of pollen-imitating structures in view of the conflicting use of pollen for pollination in flowering plants and provision of pollen for offspring in bees.     

The dimorphic heterostyly inAconogonon campanulatum (Polygonaceae)

Heterostyly is clearly confirmed inAconogonon campanulatum. This distylous species is dimorphic for tepals, styles, stigma surface, stamens, pollen grain size, and pollen sexine ornamentation. The floral shape is campanulate and thrum flowers are slightly larger than pin flowers. Small solitary bees were observed as flower visitors and probably effected pollination. The possible evolution of dioecy via heterostyly within the genusAconogonon is discussed.     

Colored floral organs influence pollinator behavior and pollen transfer in Commelina communis (Commelinaceae)

Visual floral guides such as colored anthers, lines, dots, and UV-absorption patterns on petals are commonly observed in insect-pollinated angiosperms. Floral guides that are known to enhance foraging efficiency of visitors on flowers thus promote return visits (foraging facilitation hypothesis, which predicts that visitors will discriminate against flowers with inferior floral guides). In this study, we experimentally examined the hypothesis that floral guides also prevent pollen-theft behavior by floral visitors (theft prevention hypothesis), which has rarely been tested. Nectarless flowers of Commelina communis have three types of brightly colored floral organs: large blue petals, rewarding yellow anthers, and nonrewarding yellow anthers. Colored floral organs were removed artificially from plants in two natural populations of C. communis. Removal of the nonrewarding yellow anthers diminished hoverings in front of flowers and tended to reduce the number of total floral visitor landings, supporting the foraging facilitation hypothesis. Additionally, removal of the rewarding yellow anther decreased the frequency of legitimate landings on flowers and the legitimate landing-to-total landing ratio, which is consistent with the theft prevention hypothesis. The nonrewarding anthers and the rewarding yellow anthers were shown to play an important role in increasing visitor landings and orienting floral visitors toward a landing point appropriate for pollination, respectively. We also showed that the absence of yellow anthers decreased both pollen dispatch from brown anthers and receipt by stigmas in C. communis. These findings support both the foraging facilitation hypothesis and the theft prevention hypothesis.     

Is There ‘Anther-Anther Interference’ within a Flower? Evidences from One-by-One Stamen Movement in an Insect-Pollinated Plant

The selective pressure imposed by maximizing male fitness (pollen dispersal) in shaping floral structures is increasingly recognized and emphasized in current plant sciences. To maximize male fitness, many flowers bear a group of stamens with temporally separated anther dehiscence that prolongs presentation of pollen grains. Such an advantage, however, may come with a cost resulting from interference of pollen removal by the dehisced anthers. This interference between dehisced and dehiscing anthers has received little attention and few experimental tests to date. Here, using one-by-one stamen movement in the generalist-pollinated Parnassia palustris, we test this hypothesis by manipulation experiments in two years. Under natural conditions, the five fertile stamens in P. palustris flowers elongate their filaments individually, and anthers dehisce successively one-by-one. More importantly, the anther-dehisced stamen bends out of the floral center by filament deflexion before the next stamen''s anther dehiscence. Experimental manipulations show that flowers with dehisced anther remaining at the floral center experience shorter (1/3–1/2 less) visit durations by pollen-collecting insects (mainly hoverflies and wasps) because these ‘hungry’ insects are discouraged by the scant and non-fresh pollen in the dehisced anther. Furthermore, the dehisced anther blocks the dehiscing anther''s access to floral visitors, resulting in a nearly one third decrease in their contact frequency. As a result, pollen removal of the dehiscing anther decreases dramatically. These results provide the first direct experimental evidence that anther-anther interference is possible in a flower, and that the selection to reduce such interferences can be a strong force in floral evolution. We also propose that some other floral traits, usually interpreted as pollen dispensing mechanisms, may function, at least partially, as mechanisms to promote pollen dispersal by reducing interferences between dehisced and dehiscing anthers.     

Pollination function transferred: modified tepals of Albuca (Hyacinthaceae) serve as secondary stigmas

Background and Aims

The stigma, a structure which serves as a site for pollen receipt and germination, has been assumed to have evolved once, as a modification of carpels, in early angiosperms. Here it is shown that a functional stigma has evolved secondarily from modified tepals in some Albuca species (Hyacinthaceae).

Methods

Deposition of pollen on Albuca floral organs by bees was recorded. Pollen germination and fruit set was measured in flowers that had pollen deposited solely on their tepals or had their tepal tips experimentally isolated or removed after pollination.

Key Results

Leafcutter bees deposit pollen onto the papillate apices of the inner tepals of Albuca flowers. Pollen germinates in tepal-derived fluid secreted 2 or 3 d after anthesis and pollen tubes subsequently penetrate the style during flower wilting. Application of cross-pollen to the inner tepal apices of A. setosa flowers led to high fruit set. No fruits were produced in pollinated flowers in which the inner tepals were mechanically isolated or removed.

Conclusions

Pollen capture by tepals in the Albuca clade probably evolved in response to selection for floral morphology that maximizes the accuracy of pollen transfer. These findings show how pollination function can be transferred among floral organs, and shed light on how the original angiosperm stigma developed from sporophylls.     

Biosystematic studies onDisporum (Liliaceae-Polygonatae)

Both the floral biology and morphometrics of two Japanese species of AsianDisporum (sectionEudisporum) are presented. These two species,D. sessile andD. smilacinum, represent extremes in both floral morphology and divergence in pollination within the section. The inverted flowers ofD. sessile have an elongate floral tube formed by the imbrication of the oblanceolate tepals. The tepal bases are modified into well developed, saccate nectaries. The stamens have rigid, vertical filaments which tightly encircle the ovary-style axis, and extrorse anthers located within a floral cavity which can accommodate a large pollinator (cross-pollination). The stigma is exserted and the depth of its cleft formation constant.D. smilacinum, in contrast, has an open, nodding campanulate flower with lanceolate tepals which have only shallow nectaries at their bases. The stamens have widely divergent filaments with versatile anthers that have laterally introrse dehiscence (wind and/or self-pollination). The depth of the stigma cleft is variable. For both species, the pattern of differential UV absorption and reflectance is similar. It is suggested on morphological grounds and by pollinator observation, thatD. sessile with a high energy flower requiring specialized visitors represents a more advanced condition than that observed inD. smilacinum, which is more generalized and primitive. Seasonal herbivore pressure on the tepal nectaries ofD. sessile is discussed in relation to its pollination.     

A preliminary study on pollination biology of Omphalogramma souliei Franch. (Primulaceae), a species endemic to China

The pollination biology of Omphalogramma souliei Franch., a species endemic to southwestern China, was investigated. Floral phenology, flower visitors, pollen/ovule ratio, attractants and rewards to the visitors were observed, measured, and recorded. Bagging experiments to exclude pollinators were carried out in the wild for two years. Our results revealed five important aspects of the reproductive biology of Omphalogramma souliei. 1) The pollen-ovule ratio was 1748±233. The breeding system was self-compatible, with facultative xenogamy. 2) The pollination syndrome is entomophily, and this species could not be pollinated by wind if the pollinators were unavailable. 3) Six insect species were observed visiting the flowers of Omphalogramma souliei in the wild, of them, three species of hymenoptera, Lasioglossum sp., Heriades parvula Cockerell and Micrapis florae Fabricius, are the principal floral visitors and effective pollinators. 4) The visual attractants to the visitors are floral color and shape, the large yellow anthers, and the rewards for visitors are pollen and nectar. 5) Cleistogamy may also occur, since the anthers of some flowers dehisced before opening of the corolla. The results of floral biology and pollination characters suggest that xenogamy predominated and autogamy played an assistant role in the evolution of reproduction and breeding system of O. souliei.     

Unidirectionality of floral colour changes

Many angiosperms have arranged their flowers in inflorescences forming a distinct signalling unit to flower visitors. In some species, the flowers of inflorescences undergo a temporal colour change corresponding exactly to a change in the reward status. Based on information obtained from the spectral reflection curves of pre-change and postchage colours of flower corollas and/or floral guides, it was possible to demonstrate that the colour phase associated with reward closely corresponds to the visual stimuli which trigger behavioural responses of inexperienced flower visitors, and that the colour phase associated with less reward corresponds to visual stimuli less attractive to naïve flower visitors. Reciprocal colour changes were not observed. It is to be assumed that the unidirectionality of floral colour changes is an adaptation of angiosperms aimed at the guidance of first-time flower visitors. Signalling reward to inexperienced flower visitors is an additional function of floral colour changes. The main function of floral colour changes, however, is to provide cues with which the flower visitors can learn to associate one colour phase with reward.     

Visual detection of diminutive floral guides in the bumblebee <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bombus terrestris</Emphasis> and in the honeybee <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apis mellifera</Emphasis>

Many flowers display colour patterns comprising a large peripheral colour area that serves to attract flower visitors from some distance, and a small central, contrastingly coloured area made up by stamens or floral guides. In this study, we scaled down the size of floral guides to detect the minimal size bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) and honeybees (Apis mellifera) require for guidance. We analyzed the approach and the precise contact of the antennal tips with the floral guide of artificial flowers which precedes landing and inspection. Both bumblebees and honeybees were able to make antennal contact with circular floral guides which were 2 mm in diameter; bumblebees performed better than honeybees and antennated also at floral guides smaller than 2 mm. In discrimination experiments with bumblebees, a minimum floral guide size of 2 mm was required for discrimination between artificial flowers with and without floral guides. With increasing experience bumblebees targeted close to the site of reward instead of making antennal contact with the floral guide, whereas honeybees did not alter their initial behaviour with growing experience. Bumblebees and honeybees spontaneously target diminutive floral guides to achieve physical contact with flowers by means of their antennae which helps them to inspect flowers.     

FLORAL PARAMETERS,BREEDING SYSTEM AND POLLINATOR TYPE IN TRICHOSTEMA (LABIATAE)

Diversity in flower size and degree of exsertion of anthers and stigma from the corolla in the California species of Trichostema appear to be correlated with breeding system and pollinator type (bee vs. bird). Autogamous (self-pollinating) species unlike xenogamous (cross-pollinating) species lack spatially separate anthers and stigma and nototribic pollination. The outcrossing species have significantly larger flowers, significantly larger nectar volumes and significantly higher pollen-ovule ratios than do selfing species. Because autogamous species are less reliant on flower visitors to facilitate pollination, there may be relaxed selection for large nectar producing flowers. Pollen-ovule ratios are correlated with breeding system and reflect the efficiency of pollen transport. Data on floral parameters suggest xenogamous species expend more energy per floral unit and are less efficient seed producers than closely related autogamous species.     

A generalised mimicry system involving angiosperm flower colour, pollen and bumblebees’ innate colour preferences

Flower colour is a major advertisement signal of zoophilous plants for pollinators. Bees, the main pollinators, exhibit innate colour preferences, which have often been attributed to only one single floral colour, though most flowers display a pattern of two or several colours. The existing studies of floral colour patterns are mostly qualitative studies. Using a model of bee colour vision we quantitatively investigate two questions: whether or not component colours of floral colour patterns may mimic pollen signals, and whether or not bumblebees exhibit innate preferences for distinct parameters of naturally existing floral colour patterns. We analysed the spectral reflectances of 162 plant species with multicoloured flowers and inflorescences, distiniguishing between inner and outer colours of floral colour patterns irrespective of the particular structures so coloured.We found that:– The inner colour of radially symmetrical flowers and inflorescences and of zygomorphic flowers appears less diverse to bees than the peripheral colour.– The inner colour of most radial flowers and inflorescences as well as the inner colour of a large number of non-related zygomorphic flowers appears to bees to be very similar to that of pollen.– Bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) exhibit innate preferences for two-coloured over single-coloured dummy flowers in a spontaneous choice test.– Bumblebees exhibit innate preferences for dummy flowers with a large over those with a small centre area.– Bumblebees exhibit innate preferences for dummy flowers with a centre colour similar to that of pollen over those with another centre colour.Our findings support the hypotheses that the inner component of floral colour patterns could be interpreted as a generalised and little recognised form of mimicry of the colour of visually displayed pollen, that bumblebees exhibit innate preferences regarding colour and size parameters of floral colour patterns, and that these correspond to visually displayed pollen. These findings together suggest a prominent role of floral colour patterns in advertisement to and guidance of naive flower visitors.     

Intersexual mimicry and flowering phenology facilitate pollination in a dioecious habitat specialist species, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Myristica fatua</Emphasis> (Myristicaceae)

Myristica fatua is a dioecious specialist species restricted to the endangered, freshwater Myristica swamp forests in the Western Ghats, India. Earlier studies have alluded to pollination by deception in members of the Myristica genus, and thus we examined the pollination ecology comprising floral biology, flower production, flower visitors, and reproductive success in M. fatua and inferred the potential strategies that could permit such deception in this habitat specialist tree. Male flowers provide pollen rewards for an extended period of time while female flowers are rewardless and both sexes are visited by generalist insects, mainly by honeybees and stingless bees. Bee visits were significantly more frequent and longer on male than on female flowers as bees collected pollen from male flowers. We found that flower production patterns create a preponderance of males compared to females in the swamp populations. Using a model of honeybee color vision, we found the distance between the color loci of male and female flowers and based on minimum visual angle subtended by these flowers, we suggest that the two floral sexes cannot be discriminated by bees. Bees are likely deceived by the perceptual similarity of rewardless female flowers to pollen-offering male flowers and pollination is the consequence of foraging errors made by pollinators that encounter largely male–rarely female flower mosaics as they forage among clump-distributed M. fatua trees in the swamp habitat.     

Can floral consumption by fish shape traits of seagrass flowers?

Seagrasses are marine flowering plants with hydrophilous pollination. This abiotic pollination by water assumes absence of flower-animal interaction, but animals can interfere in this process through consumption of reproductive structures. We studied predation on male flowers by fish for three dioecious seagrass species (Thalassia testudinum, Syringodium filiforme and Halodule wrightii) in the Mexican Caribbean. Seagrass flowers have a highly reduced or absent corolla and florivores directly consumed the anthers with pollen. The foliar structures (tepals, bracts or sheaths) protecting the male flower buds were removed by hand in situ. The floral buds were followed by videos or taking pictures at regular intervals and most (56–100 %, depending on seagrass species and experimental setting) artificially denuded male flower buds were consumed within 24 h by juvenile fish of various species. Histochemical analysis showed that the pollen and embedding mucilage were rich in polysaccharides and proteins, thus potentially nutritious. The seagrasses had copious production of pollen (between 0.2 and 1.2 × 10⁶ pollen per flower, depending on the species). But T. testudinum and S. filiforme were often pollen limited, and the probability of fruit set was reduced ~50 % when the females were at the distance of 1 and 5–6 m from the males flowers, respectively. Under natural conditions, depredation on pre-anthesis male flowers in the three species was low because flower bud emergence (few hours) and pollen release (1–4 h) were ephemeral processes. In addition, the release of pollen of T. testudinum occurred at dusk when herbivorous fish became inactive. These life-cycle characteristics aid to avoid excessive pollen consumption by fish, however, whether they are anti-predator strategies or mere adaptations for submarine pollination remains to be established.     

Patterns of pollen removal and deposition in Polemonium brandegeei (Polemoniaceae): the role of floral visitors,floral design and sexual interference

The arrangement, colour, shape and size of floral parts (collectively floral design) have evolved primarily to promote mating success via animal‐mediated pollen transfer. Although numerous studies have examined variation in pollinator assemblages, relatively few have examined patterns of pollen removal and deposition in the presence of fluctuating pollinators and ineffective floral visitors; therefore, net pollen removal and deposition by entire visitor assemblages are unclear. We studied the timing (diurnal or nocturnal) and effects of floral traits on pollen removal and deposition under a dynamic visitor assemblage of Polemonium brandegeei. We quantified pollen grains remaining in anthers (pollen removal) and deposited on stigmas (pollen deposition) of plants visited during either the day (07:30–20:00 h) or night (20:30–07:30 h) in natural populations over two flowering seasons. Pollen removal and deposition occurred both diurnally and nocturnally during our study. Increased diurnal removal and deposition coincided with peak floral visitations in 2006. This increase in pollen removal and deposition may reflect increased visits by pollen consumers, effective hawkmoth pollinators and increased self‐pollen deposition due to hot, dry weather. Nonlinear effects of style length significantly affected pollen removal, with less pollen remaining in flowers with intermediate style lengths. Pollen deposition was more complex, with herkogamy and anther height affecting deposition. Further, close proximity of stigmas and anthers increased the potential for sexual interference between pollen removal and deposition. Overall, flower visitations and pollen removal and deposition varied between years and populations, but sex organ placement consistently influenced the removal and deposition of pollen.     

High specialisation in the pollination system of Mandevilla tenuifolia (J.C. Mikan) Woodson (Apocynaceae) drives the effectiveness of butterflies as pollinators

Butterfly pollination in the tropics is considered somewhat effective or solely effective in a few plant species. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that Mandevilla tenuifolia (Apocynaceae), which has floral attributes associated with psychophily, has strategies adapted to pollination by butterflies, restricting other floral visitors and making these insects act as efficient pollinators. We analysed the floral and reproductive biology of M. tenuifolia, as well as the frequency and efficiency of its flower visitors. M. tenuifolia is an herb whose flowers have strong herkogamy and secondary pollen presentation on the style head, which corresponds to 60.4% of pollen on the anthers. Flower longevity and the long period of receptivity of the stigmatic region associated with the large amount of pollen removed in the first visits suggest that flowers remain functionally female during part of anthesis. Butterflies, mainly of the families Nymphalidae and Pieridae, are the only pollinators of M. tenuifolia. Despite being self‐compatible, M. tenuifolia depends on biotic vectors for fruit production. A non‐significant difference in fruit set between controlled treatments and natural conditions suggests that the pollinators are efficient. The inclination resulting from the landing of butterflies on flowers, together with flower morphology, guiding the insect proboscis inside the floral tube, as well as the frequency and efficiency of butterfly visits, are evidence of the close relationship between butterflies and M. tenuifolia, and also of the efficiency of these insects as pollinators.     

Pollen partitioning of three species of Convolvulaceae among oligolectic bees in the Caatinga of Brazil

During the rainy season many species of Convolvulaceae bloom simultaneously in the Caatinga of northeast Brazil. In a Caatinga nature reserve we studied pollination and breeding systems of three sympatric species of Convolvulaceae, Ipomoea bahiensis, I.?nil, and Merremia aegyptia, focusing on pollen partitioning among flower visitors and pollen flow. The study showed that only oligolectic bees collected pollen and that these species had different preferences among the three species of Convolvulaceae: pollen of Ipomoea bahiensis, the only self-incompatible species, was collected mainly by Melitoma segmentaria, M.?osmioides, and Melitomella murihirta; pollen of I.?nil by Lithurgus huberi; and that of Merremia aegyptia by Ancyloscelis apiformis and an undescribed species of this genus. Introduced honey bees visited only flowers of Merremia aegyptia, where they were extraordinarily frequent flower visitors. However, they discarded the pollen grains, which led to almost 50% pollen loss. No polylectic bee species compete for pollen with the oligolectic species. Partitioning of pollen diminishes competition for floral resources in this specialized plant?Cpollinator association.     

Pollination of the lady's slipper Cypripedium henryi Rolfe (Orchidaceae)

The pollination ecology of Cypripedium henryi Rolfe, a slipper orchid endemic to west China, was investigated, and its floral shape, size, colour, and scent were analysed. Examination of the breeding system suggests that the flowers are self-compatible, but need pollen vectors for successful reproduction. The flower is rewardless; over 15 insects belonging to Araneida, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Coleoptera were recorded as flower visitors, but most only alighted or rested on the flower. In the total 32 h of observations over 2 years, female Lasioglossum bees were found to be the most frequent visitors and the only pollinators. They showed a high visitation frequency and, surprisingly, re-visited the same flowers frequently. Cypripedium henryi probably attracts pollinators visiting the flowers through general food deception (odour components, colour, false nectar guides), as well as special structures (slippery labellum, slippery staminode). Although three Lasioglossum species visited the flowers, only L. sauterum Fan et Ebmer was found with pollen. Lasioglossum flavohirtum Ebmer was large and climbed out from the entrance. Morphologically, L. sichuanense Fan et Ebmer could be considered as a potential pollinator, but the collected specimens were found to have no pollen of C. henryi on their bodies. It was speculated that the particular floral scent of C. henryi discouraged the entrance of L. sichuanense bees. Lasioglossum sauterum was matched morphologically to the flower, but not all of the visitations resulted in effective pollinations, as some flowers of C. henryi were frequently re-visited and the pollen mass had been taken away by bees on previous visitations. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 156 , 491–499.     

Flower heliotropism of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anemone</Emphasis> <Emphasis Type="Italic">rivularis</Emphasis> (Ranunculaceae) in the Himalayas: effects on floral temperature and reproductive fitness

The flower heliotropism of Anemone rivularis (Ranunculaceae) was investigated on the Yulong Snow Mountain, near Lijiang in the northwest of the Yunnan province of China. We discovered that tepals in this species drive the peduncles to track the sun, and that this flower heliotropism was likely an adaptation for parental environmental effects on reproductive fitness. In brief, A. rivularis flowers retained sun-tracking behavior following removal of pistils and stamens, but lost heliotropic movement, if tepals were removed. Light is the major factor to affect floral heliotropism, the tepal-received light signal was in the blue frequency. Meanwhile, the peduncles were found to bend significantly on the top portion of both control flowers and those lacking pistils and stamens, but instead of keeping a vertical peduncle orientation in flowers with tepals removed. Furthermore, the floral temperature was steadier, and seed sizes and numbers were greater for control flowers than for flowers with tepals removed. Therefore, we conclude that the tepals trigger the flower heliotropism in A. rivularis and play an important role on not only increasing but also keeping optimal thermal condition of flower interior. We further conclude that flower heliotropism enhances the pollen viability and seed production, resulting in higher reproductive success for this alpine species.