Processing of McCoy cell cultures infected with Chlamydia trachomatis: sequential isolation of chlamydial elementary bodies and lipopolysaccharide

Abstract Triton X-100 (TX100) enhances the liberation of chlamydial elementary bodies (EB) from host cells and dissolves the host cell membrane. In the presence of TX100 only differential centrifugation is needed to isolate reasonably pure EBs. The remaining high-speed supernatant still contains a large part of the chlamydial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which can be isolated with the standard phenol-chloroform-petroleum ether extraction.     

Towards quantitative metabolomics of mammalian cells: Development of a metabolite extraction protocol

Metabolomics aims to quantify all metabolites within an organism, thereby providing valuable insight into the metabolism of cells. To study intracellular metabolites, they are first extracted from the cells. The ideal extraction procedure should immediately quench metabolism and quantitatively extract all metabolites, a significant challenge given the rapid turnover and physicochemical diversity of intracellular metabolites. We have evaluated several quenching and extraction solutions for their suitability for mammalian cells grown in suspension. Quenching with 60% methanol (buffered or unbuffered) resulted in leakage of intracellular metabolites from the cells. In contrast, quenching with cold isotonic saline (0.9% [w/v] NaCl, 0.5 °C) did not damage cells and effectively halted conversion of ATP to ADP and AMP, indicative of metabolic arrest. Of the 12 different extraction methods tested, cold extraction in 50% aqueous acetonitrile was superior to other methods. The recovery of a mixture of standards was excellent, and the concentration of extracted intracellular metabolites was higher than for the other methods tested. The final protocol is easy to implement and can be used to study the intracellular metabolomes of mammalian cells.     

Th17细胞在衣原体感染中的作用研究

衣原体是一类专性细胞内寄生的原核细胞型微生物,是感染人和动物常见的病原体之一,能够引起人和动物的多种疾病。近年来的研究表明,Th17细胞可能通过多种途径,在衣原体的免疫机制中发挥重要作用。虽然Th17细胞的生物学特征及其在炎症和自身免疫疾病的功能研究很多,但Th17细胞在衣原体感染中的作用机制尚不完全清楚,本文仅就对Th17细胞在衣原体感染中的诱导、发生、发育、分化等机制和免疫调节效应的研究进展予以简要综述。     

Adaptation of mammalian cells to growth in serum-free media

A three-step protocol is described for adapting an anchorage-dependent, serum-dependent recombinant mammalian cell lineage to high density serum-free suspension culture. The objective is a cell lineage that is well-suited for the manufacture of a recombinant protein. The first step of the protocol generates an anchorage-independent cell lineage by culturing trypsin-treated cells in spinner flasks using serum-containing medium. The second step adapts the lineage to serum-free medium through a series of serum reduction steps in the presence of defined growth-promoting additives. The third step adapts the lineage to high-cell-density conditions by culturing the cells in a bioreactor in a manner that allows development of tolerance to growth-inhibiting substances released by the cells. Examples are presented for the use of this protocol for recombinant CHO cells.     

Selective permeabilization for the high-throughput measurement of compartmented enzyme activities in mammalian cells

Permeabilization was evaluated as a rapid method to prepare mammalian cells for subcellular enzyme activity measurement. It was observed that enzymes can be measured directly in cell suspensions permeabilized by Triton X-100 and digitonin with various concentrations. Total enzyme activities measured in permeabilized cells were identical to those measured in sonicated cells showing that permeabilization can replace the more complicated sonication method. Tuning of digitonin concentration allowed selective permeabilization of plasma and mitochondrial membranes. This was studied by analyzing the release of extramitochondrial and mitochondrial marker enzymes on treatment with different concentrations of the agent. Solely the plasma membrane was permeabilized by using 0.01–0.02% (w/v) digitonin. Access to all cellular enzymes was achieved by using 0.05% (v/v) Triton X-100. This selective permeabilization was further evaluated in a 96-well plate format by testing additional marker enzymes and additional cell lines, Hep G2 and CHO-K1, applying the developed protocol. The presented method is well suited for the high-throughput analysis of subcellular localization and activity of enzymes. The method is simple and enables one to distinguish between mitochondrial and extramitochondrial activities, which is usually achieved only by much more complicated and time-consuming cell preparation.     

Immunochemical characteristics of a novel cell death receptor and a decoy receptor on granulosa cells of porcine ovarian follicles

Previously, we prepared an IgM monoclonal antibody(PFG-1) which specifically recognized a cell-membraneglycoprotein (PFG-1 antigen; 55 kD, pI 5.9),immunohistochemically reacted with granulosa cells ofhealthy follicles but not of atretic follicles, andinduced granulosa cell apoptosis. In the presentstudy, an IgM monoclonal antibody (PFG-3) capable ofinducing granulosa cell apoptosis and an IgGmonoclonal antibody (PFG-4) not capable of inducingapoptosis were produced against granulosa cellsprepared from healthy antral follicles of porcineovaries. Two-dimensional Western blotting analysisrevealed that PFG-3 specifically recognized twocell-membrane proteins (named PFG-3-1 andPFG-3-2/PFG-1 antigens; 42 kD, pI 5.2 and 55 kD, pI5.9, respectively) of healthy granulosa cells, andthat PFG-4 recognized the same two cell-membraneproteins. In atretic granulosa cells, PFG-3-2/PFG-1antigen disappeared. Immunochemical reactions of theseantibodies were only detected in follicular granulosacells but not any other ovarian tissues or organs.PFG-3 and PFG-4 immunohistochemically reacted withgranulosa cells of healthy and atretic follicles. Whenthe isolated granulosa cells prepared from healthyfollicles were cultured in medium containing PFG-3,the cells underwent apoptosis, and co-incubation withPFG-4 inhibited PFG-3-inducible apoptosis. Theseobservations suggested that PFG-3-2/PFG-1 antigen isa novel cell death receptor which is different fromthe apoptosis-mediating receptors (Fas/Apo-1/CD95 orTNF receptor), and that PFG-3-1 antigen may act as adecoy receptor and inhibit apoptotic signal transmission.     

High‐throughput screening and selection of mammalian cells for enhanced protein production

The production of recombinant proteins for biotherapeutic use is a multibillion dollar industry, which has seen continual growth in recent years. In order to produce the best protein with minimal cost and time, selection methods are utilized during the cell line development process in order to select for the most desirable clonal cell line from a heterogeneous transfectant pool. Today, there is a vast array of potential selection methods available, which vary in cost, complexity and efficacy. This review aims to highlight cell line selection methods that exist for the isolation of high‐producing clones, and also reviews techniques that can be used to predict, at a small scale, the performance of clones at large, industrially‐relevant scales.     

Diffusional water permeability of mammalian red blood cells

An extensive programme of comparative nuclear magnetic resonance measurements of the membrane diffusional permeability for water (P_d) and of the activation energy (E_a,d) of this process in red blood cells (RBCs) from 21 mammalian species was carried out. On the basis of P_d, these species could be divided into three groups. First, the RBC's from humans, cow, sheep and “large” kangaroos (Macropus giganteus and Macropus rufus) had P_d values 5 × 10⁻³ cm/s at 25°C and 7 × 10⁻³ cm/s at 37°C. The RBCs from other marsupial species, mouse, rat, guinea pig and rabbit, had P_d values roughly twice higher, whereas echidna RBCs were twice lower than human RBCs. The value of E_a,d was in most cases correlated with the values of P_d. A value of E_a,d -26 kJ/mol was found for the RBCs from humans and the species having similar P_d values. Low values of E_a,d (ranging from 15 to 22 kJ/mol) appeared to be associated with relatively high values of P_d. The highest value of E_a,d (33 kJ/mol) was found in echidna RBCs. This points to specialized channels for water diffusion incorporated in membrane proteins; a relatively high water permeability of the RBC membrane could be due to a greater number of channel proteins. There are, however, situations where a very high water permeability of RBCs is associated with a high value of E_a,d (above 25 kJ/mol) as in the case of RBCs from mouse, rat and tree kangaroo. Moreover, it was found that P_d in different species was positively correlated to the RBC membrane phosphatidylcholine and negatively correlated to the sphingomyelin content. This suggests that in addition to the number of channel proteins, other factors are involved in the water permeability of the RBC membrane.     

Purification and characterization of ubiquitin from mammalian testis

Ubiquitin was extracted from testis of 4 mammals and purified to homogeneity by gel filtration chromatography. Amino acid compositions and NH2-terminal sequences were found to be identical in the 4 species and with calf thymus ubiquitin. Ubiquitin conformation was shown to be very sensitive to oxidation. Improved methods for radioimmunoassay of ubiquitin in tissue extracts are also discussed.     

Neural crest origin of mammalian Merkel cells

Here, we provide evidence for the neural crest origin of mammalian Merkel cells. Together with nerve terminals, Merkel cells form slowly adapting cutaneous mechanoreceptors that transduce steady indentation in hairy and glabrous skin. We have determined the ontogenetic origin of Merkel cells in Wnt1-cre/R26R compound transgenic mice, in which neural crest cells are marked indelibly. Merkel cells in whiskers and interfollicular locations express the transgene, beta-galactosidase, identifying them as neural crest descendants. We thus conclude that murine Merkel cells originate from the neural crest.     

Nucleoside transport in cultured mammalian cells multiple forms with different sensitivity to inhibition by nitrobenzylthioinosine or hypoxanthine

The zero-trans influx of 500 μM uridine by CHO, P388, L1210 and L929 cells was inhibited by nitrobenzylthioinosine (NBTI) in a biphasic manner; 60–70% of total uridine influx by CHO cells and about 90% of that in P388, L1210 and L929 cells was inhibited by nmolar concentrations of NBTI (ID₅₀ = 3?10 nM) and is designated NBTI-sensitive transport. The residual transport activity, designated NBTI-resistant transport, was inhibited by NBTI only at concentrations above 1 μM (ID₅₀ = 10?50 μM). S49 cells exhibited only NBTI-sensitive uridine transport, whereas Novikoff cells exhibited only NBTI-resistant uridine transport. In all instances NBTI-sensitive transport correlated with the presence of between 7·10⁴ and 7·10⁵ high-affinity NBTI binding sites/cell (K_d = 0.3?1 nM). Novikoff cells lacked such sites. The two types of nucleoside transport, NBTI-resistant and NBTI-sensitive, were indistinguishable in substrate affinity, temperature dependence, substrate specificity, inhibition by structurally unrelated substances, such as dipyridamole or papaverine, and inhibition by sulfhydryl reagents or hypoxanthine. We suggest, therefore, that a single nucleoside transporter can exist in an NBTI-sensitive and an NBTI-resistant form depending on its disposition in the plasma membrane. The sensitive form expresses a high-affinity NBTI binding site(s) which is probably made up of the substrate binding site plus a hydrophobic region which interacts with the lipophilic nitrobenzyl group of NBTI. The latter site seems to be unavailable in NBTI-resistant transporters. The proportion of NBTI-resistant and sensitive uridine transport was constant during proportion of NBTI-resistant and sensitive uridine transport was constant during progression of P388 cells through the cell cycle and independent of the growth stage of the cells in culture. There were additional differences in uridine transport between cell lines which, however, did not correlate with NBTI sensitivity and might be related to the species origin of the cells. Uridine transport in Novikoff cells was more sensitive to inhibition by dipyridamole and papaverine than that in all other cell lines tested, whereas uridine transport in CHO cells was the most sensitive to inactivation by sulfhydryl reagents.     

Functional characterization of ecdysone receptor gene switches in mammalian cells

Regulated expression of transgene is essential in basic research as well as for many therapeutic applications. The main purpose of the present study is to understand the functioning of the ecdysone receptor (EcR)-based gene switch in mammalian cells and to develop improved versions of EcR gene switches. We utilized EcR mutants to develop new EcR gene switches that showed higher ligand sensitivity and higher magnitude of induction of reporter gene expression in the presence of ligand. We also developed monopartite versions of EcR gene switches with reduced size of the components that are accommodated into viral vectors. Ligand binding assays revealed that EcR alone could not bind to the nonsteroidal ligand, RH-2485. The EcR's heterodimeric partner, ultraspiracle, is required for efficient binding of EcR to the ligand. The essential role of retinoid X receptor (RXR) or its insect homolog, ultraspiracle, in EcR function is shown by RXR knockdown experiments using RNAi. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that VP16 (activation domain, AD):GAL4(DNA binding domain, DBD):EcR(ligand binding domain, LBD) or GAL4(DBD):EcR(LBD) fusion proteins can bind to GAL4 response elements in the absence of ligand. The VP16(AD) fusion protein of a chimera between human and locust RXR could heterodimerize with GAL4(DBD):EcR(LBD) in the absence of ligand but the VP16(AD) fusion protein of Homo sapiens RXR requires ligand for its heterodimerization with GAL4(DBD):EcR(LBD).     

多聚磷酸盐在细菌和哺乳动物细胞中的作用

多聚磷酸盐(Poly P)广泛分布于真核生物和原核生物中,是由几十个到几百个无机磷酸盐单体通过高能磷酸键聚合而成的线性多聚体。Poly P能影响细菌的毒力,有助于细菌抵抗环境中的压力刺激。在真核细胞中,Poly P与核仁的转录相关,可促进凝血和细胞分化、调节促炎反应,并和骨的重构、矿化及去矿化相关。同时,Poly P也是线粒体通透性转换孔的激活物。本文综合阐述Poly P在微生物及哺乳动物中的作用及相关机制,同时结合我们的研究工作,分析Poly P对大肠杆菌致病性的影响,以期引起研究者对Poly P的关注。     

The amino acid composition of mammalian and bacterial cells

Summary High performance liquid chromatography was used to analyze the amino acid composition of cells. A total of 17 amino acids was analyzed. This method was used to compare the amino acid compositions of the following combinations: primary culture and established cells, normal and transformed cells, mammalian and bacterial cells, andEscherichia coli andStaphylococcus aureus. The amino acid compositions of mammalian cells were similar, but the amino acid compositions ofEscherichia coli andStaphylococcus aureus differed not only from mammalian cells, but also from each other. It was concluded that amino acid composition is almost independent of cell establishment and cell transformation, and that the amino acid compositions of mammalian and bacterial cells differ. Thus, it is likely that changes in amino acid composition due to cell transformation or species differences between mammalian cells are negligible compared with the differences between mammalian and bacterial cells, which are more distantly related.     

Isotope labeling of mammalian GPCRs in HEK293 cells and characterization of the C-terminus of bovine rhodopsin by high resolution liquid NMR spectroscopy

High amino acid coverage labeling of the mammalian G protein coupled receptors (GPCR) rhodopsin was established with ¹⁵N and ¹⁵N/¹³C isotopes. Rhodopsin was expressed at preparative scale in HEK293S cells and studied in full-length by NMR spectroscopy in detergent micelle solution. This resulted in the assignment and detailed study of the dynamic properties of the C-terminus of rhodopsin. The rhodopsin C-terminus is immobilized until Ala333, after which it becomes unstructured. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

An antigen-mediated selection system for mammalian cells that produce glycosylated single-chain Fv

Selection and production of specific antibodies are limiting the development of high-throughput immunoassays such as antibody chips. In this study, we propose an antigen-mediated selection of antibody producers (ASAP) system in mammalian cells. As a model system, transgenes encoding anti-fluorescein ScFv fused to cytokine receptors were introduced to IL-3-dependent cell lines. Addition of fluorescein-conjugated BSA induced growth signal through the ScFv/receptor chimeras, leading to selective expansion of the transduced cells. Cre recombinase was then used to excise the receptor gene flanked by two loxP recognition sites in the introns, resulting in secretion of his-myc-tagged ScFv to the culture medium. When the first loxP site was used in the exon as a linker between ScFv and receptor, enhanced antigen-mediated cell proliferation and production of unexpectedly glycosylated ScFv were achieved. ASAP is the first mammalian selection/production system of recombinant human ScFvs, without need for subcloning and with the advantage of glycosylated product.