Systematics, biogeography, and evolution of the Neotropical peacock basses Cichla (Perciformes: Cichlidae)

To investigate forces influencing diversification in Neotropical fishes, the phylogenetic relationships among species and populations of the cichlid genus Cichla were examined. Mitochondrial DNA was sequenced for 454 individuals of the 5 nominal Cichla species and several putative undescribed species. Phylogenetic analyses support the distinction of two major clades of Cichla. Clade A includes C. temensis and two undescribed species from the lower Amazonas and Xingu Rivers. Clade B includes C. orinocensis, C. monoculus, C. ocellaris. C, intermedia, and an undescribed species from the upper Madeira River. Species boundaries were relatively well-circumscribed for clade B, while incomplete lineage sorting was inferred for clade A. Three probable instances of introgression were observed, including a regional population of C. orinocensis from the Negro River that shows a history of introgression. Biogeographic patterns from Cichla are partially congruent with those seen in several other Neotropical fish clades, and the diversification of Cichla species is inferred to result from both vicariance and sympatric divergence.     

A key to the species of Spilogona Schnabl from China, with descriptions of four new species from the Qinghai–Xizang (Tibetan) Plateau (Diptera: Muscidae)

A generic diagnosis for Spilogona Schnabl and a key to the 38 species known from China are given. Four new species are described: Spilogona cordis sp. nov., Spilogona lobuliunguis sp. nov., Spilogona medilobulus sp. nov. and Spilogona ponti sp. nov., all four from the Qinghai–Xizang (Tibetan) Plateau, China.     

Phylogeny and classification of Muscini (Diptera, Muscidae)

Worldwide in distribution, the tribe Muscini comprises 21 accepted genera and about 350 species. In the present study, a cladistic analysis based upon adult morphological characters is carried out in order to discuss the monophyly of the tribe and its genera, the intergeneric relationships and, in some cases, also the intrageneric relationships. As a result, Muscini is supported as a monophyletic tribe sister-group of Stomoxyini. Except for Morellia Robineau-Desvoidy, Curranosia Paterson, and Eudasyphora Townsend, all the remaining genera are monophyletic. The results are dubious for Polietes Rondani, which was then provisionally kept unchanged. Morellia was broadened to include the Neotropical endemic genera Parapyrellia Townsend, Trichomorellia Stein, and Xenomorellia Malloch. Therefore, a new classification is proposed for Morellia in which it is divided into four subgenera: Morellia s.s. , Parapyrellia , Trichomorellia , and Xenomorellia . Furthermore, the previously proposed subgenus Dasysterna Zimin is given new status as a genus; however, as it is preoccupied by Dasysterna Dejean, the new replacement name Ziminellia nom. nov. is proposed herewith. Eudasyphora was found to be a paraphyletic group relative to Dasyphora Robineau-Desvoidy; both genera are hence synonymized, and Dasyphora is classified in three subgenera: Dasyphora s.s. , Eudasyphora , and Rypellia Malloch. The analysis demonstrated that the traditional classification of Musca Linnaeus into subgenera is artificial and, moreover, that the use of characters from male genitalia could be strongly informative for classifying the genus in phylogeny-supported species groups. Finally, the new classification proposal for Muscini recognizes 18 genera and, furthermore, two undescribed genus-ranked taxa are indicated.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 149 , 493–532.     

Vertical distribution of Stomoxys spp. (Diptera: Muscidae) in a rainforest area of Gabon

The vertical distribution of Stomoxys spp. was studied in a rainforest area, Ipassa‐Makokou biosphere reserve located in the Ivindo National Park of Gabon. From April to June 2006, Vavoua traps were set out during 15 consecutive days per month at different heights above ground level corresponding to vertical layers of rainforest: 50 cm, 10, 20 and 30 m. Stomoxys calcitrans, S. transvittatus, S. omega, S. niger niger and S. niger bilineatus were more abundant at near ground level (50 cm), whereas abundance of S. xanthomelas was greatest in traps higher (20 and 30 m) in the canopy. Fly abundance was significantly different among vertical layers of the forest (H = 36.91; P < 0.001, ddl = 3), and among species to another (H = 41.11, P < 0.001). Vertical distribution of fly species corroborates feeding behaviour as the identification of blood meal origins showed heterogeneity of feeding hosts. High densities of flies were also observed at 10 m, and most S. inornatus were captured at that level. These results show that Stomoxyine flies in this rainforest are present in all vertical layers, from the ground level to the canopy. Their ubiquity, regarding both their habitats and their hosts, should be taken into account if a vector control strategy is planned in this touristic area.     

Areas of endemism and spatial diversification of the Muscidae (Insecta: Diptera) in the Andean and Neotropical regions

Aim We present a biogeographical analysis of the areas of endemism and areas of diversification in the Muscidae. This analysis searched for geographical patterns in the Muscidae to reconstruct elements of the evolutionary biogeographical history of this insect family. Location Andean and Neotropical regions. Method We constructed a geographic database of 728 species from the literature and museum specimens. Areas of endemism were established by parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) based on grids of two different sizes: 5° (550 × 550 km) and 2° (220 × 220 km). Areas of diversification were delimited by track analysis that also included phylogenetic information. This process was independently applied to 11 genera. For each genus, we plotted generalized tracks generated by sister species on a map. When these generalized tracks supported inter‐generic nodes they were manually contoured and inferred to be areas of diversification for the Muscidae. Results Thirteen endemic areas were found using the 5° grid, and eight endemic areas resulted from the 2° grid. Ten areas were in agreement with previous studies, and 11 were new. Amazonian and Atlantic areas of diversification agreed with previous areas for the genus Polietina, and new areas of diversification were found in Panama and in central Chile. Main conclusions Six spatial patterns in the Muscidae were identified: (1) areas of endemism in both Pampa and Puna provinces were established with species whose distributions had not previously been analysed; (2) a new area of endemism was established in extreme southern South America, in Tierra del Fuego; (3) two new areas of diversification, which include Panama and central Chile, were identified; (4) a spatial association was identified between the separation of Chiloe Island from the continent and the diversification in Andean species; (5) a north–south track axis and latitudinal node intervals were identified, interpreted as spatial responses to glaciation or glacial retreat in the Andes; and (6) a spatial coincidence of areas of endemism, of diversification and high species richness in the Muscidae was discovered. The analysis of a complete database and the recognition of areas of diversification are extremely important in elucidating novel biogeographical patterns, which will in turn contribute to a better understanding of the geographical patterns of evolution in the Muscidae.     

Systematics of Otarrha, a new Neotropical subgenus of Chimarra (Trichoptera: Philopotamidae)

Abstract. Subgenus Otarrha is established in genus Chimarra to include eighteen described species formerly placed either in subgenus Chimarra or unplaced to subgenus, and thirteen new species. All species are Neotropical, with collective distributions primarily in the Antilles (Greater and Lesser) and northern South America. One species occurs in southeastern Brazil and another species in Costa Rica and Panama. New species are described, recognized species redescribed (except for C. diannae and C. koki ), and a key to the identification of males in the subgenus is provided. Additionally, characters supporting monophyly of the subgenus and a phylogeny of its species are proposed. Described species transferred to this subgenus include Chimarra cubanorum Botosaneanu, C . diakis Flint, C . diannae Flint & Sykora, C . dominicana Flint, C . garciai Botosaneanu, C . guapa Botosaneanu, C . jamaicensis Flint, C . koki Botosaneanu, C . machaerophora Flint, C . patosa Ross, C . puertoricensis Flint, C . quadrifurcata Botosaneanu, C . retrorsa Flint, C . rossi Bueno-Soria, C . sensillata Flint, C . septemlobata Flint, C . septifera Flint and C . spinulifera Flint. Chimarra patosa is designated the type species of the subgenus. New species described in Otarrha include Chimarra amazonia (Peru), C . barinas (Venezuela), C . darlingtoni (Cuba), C . diaphora (Venezuela), C . incipiens (Venezuela), C . odonta (Brazil), C . parene (Peru), C . parilis (Peru), C . particeps (Peru), C . peruana (Peru), C . phthanorossi (Colombia), C . redonda (Dominican Republic) and C . tachuela (Venezuela). Two additional species are described and left incertae sedis to subgenus, Chimarra usitatissima Flint and C . angularis , sp.n. (Venezuela, Guyana).     

Cytotaxonomy of Simulium cauchense Floch & Abonnenc and Simulium quadrifidum Lutz (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Brazilian Amazonia

Simulium cauchense Floch & Abonnenc and Simulium quadrifidum Lutz are widely distributed in the Amazon region and are morphologically similar at the larval and pupal stages. Chromosomally, these species are readily distinguished by the position of the nucleolar organizer, which is in the short arm of chromosome I in S. cauchense and in the long arm of chromosomes III in S. quadrifidum. They also differ by three fixed inversions. Sex chromosomes are undifferentiated in both species. Chromosomal resolution of the two species allowed us to evaluate four structural features previously used as diagnostic aids at the larval stage. Characters that distinguish larvae of the two species are the number of branches and branching patterns of the dorsal abdominal setae and the dark band on each primary fan. Branching patterns of the gill histoblasts were often diagnostic, with S. quadrifidum exhibiting more proximal branching and S. cauchense more distal branching. Sites where both species occurred sometimes had larvae with one petiole branching proximally and the other distally; in these cases examination of the chromosomes permitted assignment of the specimen to species. Pigmentation patterns of larvae, on the other hand, are highly variable. Color typically is sex linked in both species.     

Spatial congruence between biotic history and species richness of Muscidae (Diptera,Insecta) in the Andean and Neotropical regions

Considering that Earth and life evolve together, the present study aims to verify whether the species richness patterns are spatially congruent to biotic history. Niche conservatism was adopted as a background hypothesis to associate species richness with phylogenetic information. A parallel analysis between this procedure and cladistic biogeography was undertaken. Eleven Muscidae genera that were previously systematically reviewed for phylogenetic hypotheses were chosen for the analysis. The genera were split into ‘basal’ and ‘derived’ species, following terminal taxon root distance within each genus. Richness patterns were contrasted for the most basal and most derived 33% of species, and richness maps were constructed at 220 × 220 km grid size. A difference richness map was drawn by derived minus basal values (=derived?basal). For regions with difference values around zero, a component analysis was performed and compared with relationships established by other studies. Derived and basal species richness showed a very concise richness gradient in the Neotropical region and it was compatible with its known biogeographical history. In the Andean region, richness did not show any pattern. The area cladogram grouped Subantarctic subregion in a polytomy and Central Chile as a paraphyletic group. All hypotheses about area relationship were divergent and no vicariant pattern could be recognized in Andean region. In Neotropical region, Muscidae results corroborated a previous component relationship. The hypothesis that Paleogene climatic changes could drive the biotic component’s split was suggested. In the Andean region, recently ice sheet covering events had driven the species to disperse and/or extinct resulted in absence of pattern seen either in richness analysis or in component analysis. It is believed that species richness is linked to biotic history and this fact may be considered when evaluating hypotheses to explain broad‐scale richness gradients.     

Azadirachtin as a larvicide against the horn fly, stable fly, and house fly (Diptera: Muscidae)

Effects of azadirachtin, a triterpenoid extracted from neem seed, Azadirachta indica A. Juss., were similar to those of insect growth regulators against the immature stages of the born fly, Haematobia irritans (L.), the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), and the house fly, Musca domestica L. When an ethanolic extract of ground seed was blended into cow manure, LC50 and LC90's for larval horn flies were 0.096 and 0.133 ppm azadirachtin, respectively. An emulsifiable concentrate (EC) had an LC50 for larval horn flies of 0.151 ppm and an LC90 of 0.268 ppm. For larval stable flies, the EC formulation had an LC50 of 7.7 ppm and an LC90 of 18.7 ppm azadirachtin in manure. Against larval house flies, the LC50 and LC90 were 10.5 and 20.2 ppm, respectively. When the EC formulation was administered orally to cattle at a rate of greater than or equal to 0.03 mg azadirachtin per kg of body weight per day or when ground neem seed was given as a daily supplement of greater than or equal to 10 mg seed per kg body weight, horn fly development in the manure was almost completely inhibited. In contrast, ground seed mixed in cattle feed at the rate of 100-400 mg seed per kg of body weight per day caused less than 50% inhibition of stable flies in the manure.     

Systematics and biogeography of the Neotropical genus Mabuya,with special emphasis on the Amazonian skink Mabuya nigropunctata (Reptilia,Scincidae)

Phylogenetic analyses using up to 1532 base pairs (bp) of mitochondrial DNA from 106 specimens of Neotropical Mabuya, including 18 of the 19 recognized South American and Mesoamerican species, indicate that most species of the genus are monophyletic, including M. nigropunctata that had previously been reported to be paraphyletic. The present results shows that this species includes three highly divergent and largely allopatric lineages restricted to occidental, meridional, and oriental Amazonia. Our dataset demonstrates that previous claims regarding the paraphyletic status of M. nigropunctata and the phylogenetic relationships within this species complex based on the analysis of three mitochondrial and four nuclear genes (approx. 5000 bp) were erroneous and resulted from two contaminated cytochrome b sequences.The phylogenetic results indicate that diversification in the Neotropical genus Mabuya started approximately in the Middle Miocene (15.5–13.4 Ma). The divergence dates estimated for the Mabuya nigropunctata species complex suggest that the major cladogenetic events that produced the three main groups (occidental (oriental + meridional)) occurred during the Late Miocene. These estimations show that diversification within the M. nigropunctata species complex was not triggered by the climatic changes that occurred during the Pleistocene, as has been suggested by several authors. Rather, our data support the hypothesis that the late tertiary (essentially Miocene epoch) was a period that played a very important role in the generation of biological diversity in the Amazonian forests.Speciation between Mabuya carvalhoi, endemic to the coastal mountain range of Venezuela, and M. croizati, restricted to the Guiana Shield, occurred during the Middle Miocene and may have been as the result of a vicariant event produced by the formation of the present day Orinoco river drainage basin and the consequent appearance of the Llanos del Orinoco, which acted as a barrier to dispersal between these two species. The split between M. bistriata and M. altamazonica and between the occidental and (meridional + oriental) clades of M. nigropunctata fits very well with the biogeographic split between the eastern and western Amazon basins reported for several other taxa.     

Systematics and biogeography of Klasea (Asteraceae–Cardueae) and a synopsis of the genus

Klasea , traditionally treated as a section in Serratula , is now widely accepted at the generic level. A classification of the genus is presented here, accommodating the 46 species in ten sections based on nuclear ribosomal DNA external and internal transcribed spacer sequence data and morphology. New combinations for five species and ten subspecies are published, and a new hybrid species is described. The genus ranges from the Iberian Peninsula and north Africa through southern and eastern Europe, west and central Asia to the Himalayas, and the Far East of Russia and China. The ancestral area is in west Asia, most probably eastern Anatolia and northern and western Iran. In this region, representatives of all sections are present. The largest section Klasea diversified most likely in the mountains of central Asia. A key to all Klasea species is provided.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 152 , 435–464.     

Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of the Neotropical redstarts (Myioborus; Aves, Parulinae)

Montane areas in the Neotropics are characterized by high diversity and endemism of birds and other groups. The avian genus Myioborus (Parulinae) is a group of insectivorous warblers, characteristic of cloud forests, that represents one of the few Parulinae genera (New World warblers) that has radiated substantially in South America. The genus is distributed throughout most montane regions from the southwestern United States to northern Argentina. Here, I use mitochondrial sequences from the cytochrome b, ND2, and ND3 genes to present the first hypothesis of phylogenetic relationship among all Myioborus species level taxa. Phylogenetic reconstructions based on maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods produced similar results and suggest a northern origin for the genus Myioborus with subsequent colonization of the Neotropical Montane Region. The lower-montane species, M. miniatus, is the sister taxon to a clade in which all taxa occupy upper-montane habitats. These "highland" taxa diverged early in the history of the genus and produced two well-defined monophyletic lineages, a Central-northern Andean clade formed by M. albifrons, M. ornatus, and M. melanocephalus, and a Pantepui (table-mountains of southern Venezuela, northern Brazil, and western Guyana) clade consisting of M. castaneocapillus, M. albifacies, and M. cardonai, and probably M. pariae. M. brunniceps, M. flavivertex, and M. torquatus were included in this upper-montane clade but without clear relationships to other taxa. Lack of resolution of nodes defining the upper-montane species clade is likely to result from a period of rapid diversification mediated by geological and climatic events during the Late Pliocene. These results suggest that an interplay of dispersal and vicariance has shaped the current biogeographic patterns of Myioborus.     

Systematics, phylogeny and biogeography of Anterastes (Orthoptera, Tettigoniidae, Tettigoniinae): evolution within a refugium

Çıplak, B. (2004). Systematics, phylogeny and biogeography of Anterastes (Orthoptera, Tettigoniidae, Tettigoniinae): evolution within a refugium. — Zoologica Scripta , 33 , 19–44.
The genus Anterastes , distributed in southeastern Europe and the western part of Anatolia, is revised based on previous materials and numerous specimens collected from new localities. A key to all species is presented. Two new species, A. antitauricus sp. n. and A. ucari sp. n. are described. Anterastes akdaghensis Ramme is placed in synonymy with A. babadaghi Uvarov. Cladistic analysis confirmed the monophyly of Anterastes . The relationships among the species of Anterastes are: A. uludaghensis  + (( A. serbicus  +  A. burri  +  A. antitauricus sp. n.) + ( A. anatolicus  +  A. tolunayi  + ( A. niger  + ( A. babadaghi  +  A. turcicus  +  A. ucari sp. n.)))). The biogeography of the genus shows a correlation with its phylogeny. It is assumed that the genus arose from an ancestral stock in northwestern Anatolia in the Pliocene and the later range of this ancestral population expanded and contracted under the effects of the ice ages (glacial and interglacial periods, respectively). It is postulated that speciation within the genus, suggested by phylogenetic analysis, might have occurred when the range of ancestral populations expanded during glacial periods and contracted in subsequent warm periods. The present species may be the product of relict populations remaining in refugia at higher altitudes with alpine or subalpine vegetation in southern Anatolia.     

Cryopreservation of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) embryos

Prior studies on cryopreserving embryos of several non-drosophilid flies established that two Drosophila melanogaster embryo cryopreservation protocols were not directly suitable for use with these species. This paper describes our work on developing a protocol for cryopreservation of embryos of the housefly, Musca domestica. Significant progress was made when permeabilization of the vitelline membrane was optimized, a vitrification solution containing ethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, and trehalose was formulated, and when cooling and recovery of the cryopreservation protocol included a step which passed the embryos through liquid nitrogen vapor. More than 70% of housefly embryos withstand treatments of dechorionation, permeabilization, loading with cryoprotectant, and dehydration in vitrification solution, but the cooling, warming, and poststorage rearing steps still cause a considerable reduction in survival. About 53% of the vitrified M. domestica embryos hatched into larvae. Relative to the percentage of the control adult emergence, about 13% of the embryos stored in liquid nitrogen developed into fertile adults. Hatching of the F(1) progeny of adults having been cryopreserved as embryos was similar to control levels.     

Salinity tolerance of stable fly (Diptera: Muscidae)

Effects of salinity on the survival, growth, and development of stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), were investigated in the laboratory. Larvae failed to develop to pupation when reared in media containing a salinity of 40 parts per thousand (ppt) sodium chloride (NaCl). Maximum salinity supporting larval development equaled the salinity of seawater (34 ppt); the larval LC90 was 24.2 ppt. Deleterious effects of high salinity decreased as larvae matured. Six-day-old larvae reared at a salinity of 34 ppt weighed 79% less than controls, compared with a 36% difference in 9-d-old larvae; by pupation, the difference was only 24%. Salinity did not influence the duration of larval, pupal, or adult stages. Survival of pupae was unimpaired despite a slight increase in number of pupal deformities, and normal adults emerged. Eggs were highly tolerant to saline. They hatched at salinity concentrations lethal to larvae; greater than 50% hatch occurred even when eggs were maintained at 80 ppt NaCl. Sensitivity of larvae to salinities close to that of seawater might be important for control of stable flies inhabiting marine areas.     

中国蝇科一新属新种(双翅目：蝇科)

整理新疆地区蝇科标本中,发现棘蝇亚科Phaoniinae一新属和一新种,命名为华棘蝇属Sinophaonia新属,模式种为栉胫华棘蝇S. pectinitibia新种。模式标本保存于沈阳师范学院昆虫研究所。     

Cladistic analysis of Coenosiini (Diptera: Muscidae: Coenosiinae)

The phylogenetic relationships among world genera of Coenosiini (Diptera: Muscidae: Coenosiinae) were investigated using parsimony. The analysis involved forty‐six ingroup terminal taxa, representing 100% of the genera currently assigned to this tribe, three outgroups and sixty‐seven adult male and female morphological characters. The monophyly of Coenosiini is confirmed by the position of the three katepisternal bristles, equidistant from each other and placed at the points of an equilateral triangle. Genera Andersonosia, Agenamyia, Anthocoenosia, Drepanocnemis, Pachyceramyia and Rhabdotoptera are removed from Coenosiini and temporarily placed in Limnophorini. The other genera fall into two groups: the Lispocephala‐group, comprised of genera with mainly Old World species and the Nearctic genus Pentacricia; and the Coenosia‐group, with the highest level of generic diversity in South America. Each group is defined by synapomorphies of its constituent genera: Lispocephala‐group by the presence of a posteroventral apical seta on the hind tibia, the presence of two arms in male sternite 6 (not forming a ring) and the short or very short female ovipositor; the Coenosia‐group by the presence of a developed epiproct and narrow sternites 6 and 7 of the female ovipositor. The following new generic synonymies are proposed (junior synonyms in parentheses): Lispocephala Pokorny (=Pectiniseta Stein), Coenosia Meigen (=Tenuicosta Stein; Dexiopsis Pokorny), Neodexiopsis Malloch (=Haroldopsis Albuquerque), Pilispina Albuquerque (=Levallonia Albuquerque; Noelia Albuquerque; Parvomusca Medeiros; Cholomyioides Albuquerque), Apsil Malloch (=Raymondomyia Malloch), Stomopogon Malloch (=Angolia Malloch; Angolina Pont) and Pygophora Schiner (=Chouicoenosia Cui & Xue).     

On the ecology of Phaonia larvae (Diptera, Muscidae)

The composition and ecological associations of predaceous larvae of more than 20 species of the genus Phaonia Rob.-Desv. from xylobiont communities were studied. The groups of phloeobionts and xylobionts are distinguished, and their associations with the principal wood destroying insects are discussed. Data on autecology of 22 species are presented.