北京市水足迹及农业用水结构变化特征

运用水足迹的理论和方法计算评价了1990—2005年北京市水足迹及水资源利用的可持续性,在此基础上进一步分析了北京市农业用水结构的变化特征。结果表明:(1)北京市水足迹从1990年的81.5亿m3上升至2005年的168.6亿m3,人均水足迹由750.1m3上升为1096.0m3;(2)北京市水资源匮乏度不断升高,1995年以来水资源自给率呈下降趋势,与之相对应的水资源依赖度越来越高;(3)农业部门用水量在本地用水量中的比例平均每年为55.1%,虚拟水净输入量在虚拟水净输入总量中的比例平均每年达到89.1%;(4)高耗水型作物产品生产用水比例升高加大了农业用水压力,动物产品生产用水量呈增加趋势,2001—2005年动物产品生产引入的虚拟水占到其虚拟水总量的81.3%。北京市水资源利用呈不可持续状态,通过农业系统内部结构的优化调整,实现农业部门水资源的高效利用是缓解北京市水资源紧缺问题的关键。     

Risk assessment of adenoviruses detected in treated drinking water and recreational water

AIMS: Human adenoviruses (HAds) have previously been detected in sewage and polluted river and dam water, as well as treated drinking water. The 51 serotypes of HAds cause a wide range of infections with clinical manifestations associated with the gastrointestinal, respiratory and urinary tracts, and the eyes. Water may play a meaningful role in the transmission of many of these HAd serotypes, specifically the enteric HAds which are transmitted via the faecal-oral route. The presence of these viruses in water used for drinking and recreational purposes is considered to constitute a potential health risk. In this study, the risk of infection by the group of HAds previously detected over a period of 1 year in selected drinking water supplies, as well as river and dam water used for recreational purposes, was assessed. METHODS AND RESULTS: Adenoviruses were previously detected in nine of 204 (4.41%) samples of two drinking water supplies (A and B) treated and disinfected according to international specifications, in four of 51 (7.8%) samples of river water and nine of 51 (17.7%) samples of dam water. Application of these previously published results in an exponential risk assessment model indicated an annual risk of infection of 1.01 x 10(-1) and 1.7 x 10(-1) for drinking water supplies A and B, respectively, assuming a daily consumption of 2 l day(-1). The daily risk of infection constituted by HAds in the river water was calculated as 1.71 x 10(-4), and in the dam water as 3.12 x 10(-5), assuming a consumption of 30 ml of water per day. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of infection exceeded the tolerable risk of one infection per 10 000 consumers per year proposed for drinking water. However, the results for river and dam water used for recreational purposes were within the tolerable risk of one infection per 1000 bathers per day proposed for environmental waters used for recreational purposes. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The study showed that the risk of HAd infection calculated for the drinking water supplies and the recreational water may overestimate the actual risk of infection, as conservative values were assumed for some of the variables. For a more accurate assessment of the potential risk of infection research should at least include a thorough investigation of the water consumption of individuals in South Africa, and the efficiency of recovery of the glass wool adsorption-elution method.     

Modeling soil water movement with water uptake by roots

Soil water movement with root water uptake is a key process for plant growth and transport of water and chemicals in the soil-plant system. In this study, a root water extraction model was developed to incorporate the effect of soil water deficit and plant root distributions on plant transpiration of annual crops. For several annual crops, normalized root density distribution functions were established to characterize the relative distributions of root density at different growth stages. The ratio of actual to potential cumulative transpiration was used to determine plant leaf area index under water stress from measurements of plant leaf area index at optimal soil water condition. The root water uptake model was implemented in a numerical model. The numerical model was applied to simulate soil water movement with root water uptake and simulation results were compared with field experimental data. The simulated soil matric potential, soil water content and cumulative evapotranspiration had reasonable agreement with the measured data. Potentially the numerical model implemented with the root water extraction model is a useful tool to study various problems related to flow transport with plant water uptake in variably saturated soils. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Predicting vegetation water content in wheat using normalized difference water indices derived from ground measurements

Vegetation water content (VWC) is an important variable for both agriculture and forest fire management. Remote sensing technology offers an instantaneous and non-destructive method for VWC assessment provided we can relate in situ measurements of VWC to spectral reflectance in a reliable way. In this paper, based on radiative transfer models, three new normalized difference water indices (NDWI) are proposed for VWC [fuel moisture content (FMC), and equivalent water thickness (EWT)] estimation, taking both leaf internal structure and dry matter content into account. Reflectance at 1,200, 1,450 and 1,940 nm were selected and normalized with reflectance at 860 nm to establish three water indices, NDWI₁₂₀₀, NDWI₁₄₅₀ and NDWI₁₉₄₀. Good correlations were observed between FMC (R ² = 0.65–0.80) and EWT (both at the leaf scale, R ² = 0.75–0.81 for EWT_L and at the canopy scale, R ² = 0.80–0.83 for EWT_C) at various stages of wheat crop development.     

A new method of measuring water potential in tree stems by water injection

Abstract. A new method of measuring xylem water potential in the stems of trees is described. The flow rate of water injected into the xylem at two or more known pressures is measured. The xylem water potential is derived either graphically from the relationship between flow rate and applied pressure, or from the solution of simultaneous flow equations.     

Occurrence of moulds in drinking water

AIMS: In order to determine the occurrence of filamentous fungi in public drinking water systems in Norway, water from 14 water supply networks from all over the country was sampled and analysed. Networks with both ground and surface water sources were included in this study. METHODS AND RESULTS: During a one-year period, 273 water samples were collected. Frequencies of fungi in samples from raw water, treated water and from home and hospital installations were determined on the basis of incubation of 100 ml membrane-filtered samples on dichloran 18% glycerol agar media. Filamentous fungi were recovered from 62% of all samples. In ground water 42.3% of the samples were positive for mould growth, while surface waters yielded 69.7% positive samples. CONCLUSIONS: The risk to recover moulds from surface water is three times higher compared with ground water. It is more likely to detect moulds in cold waters and showers than in hot waters. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: By analysing the water reaching the consumers, the results reported in present study indicate that filamentous fungi in drinking water is not negligible, and that moulds should be considered as part of the microbiological analysis parameters in drinking water.     

基于灰水足迹的中国城市水资源可持续利用综合评价

随着城市化的快速发展,中国城市水资源面临着水资源短缺与水环境恶化等挑战,因此加强城市水资源可持续利用对于中国可持续发展具有重要意义。基于灰水足迹核算对2016年中国地级市水资源可持续利用情况进行综合评价。研究结果表明：（1）中国城市灰水足迹水平差异大,平均值为23.40×10⁸ m³,主要集中在20.00×10⁸ m³以下。中国城市农业源灰水足迹比例占比主要在70%以上,工业源比例占比主要在20%以下,而生活源比例占比在40%以下;（2）全国灰水经济生产率在12.45-857.31元/m³范围内,地区差异明显。33%城市灰水足迹荷载系数均大于1,全国地级市灰水足迹荷载系数平均值为1.16,城市水资源利用已对水环境产生污染压力,用水不可持续;（3）城市水资源开发率与灰水足迹荷载系数呈一定程度的正相关关系,说明了城市发展对水资源利用的"量"和"质"的压力作用具有一定的协同关系;（4）水资源可持续利用程度呈现大型城市 > 特大型城市 > 超大型城市 > 中小型城市,城市发展一定程度上有助于水资源的可持续利用,但发展规模过大可能会造成用水高产而护水低效的现象。因地制宜的实行水资源循环经济发展模式以及适时纳入灰水足迹核算与管理体系,是当前城市化大背景下实现水资源可持续利用的重要途径。     

Competition for water for the food system

Although the global agricultural system will need to provide more food for a growing and wealthier population in decades to come, increasing demands for water and potential impacts of climate change pose threats to food systems. We review the primary threats to agricultural water availability, and model the potential effects of increases in municipal and industrial (M&I) water demands, environmental flow requirements (EFRs) and changing water supplies given climate change. Our models show that, together, these factors cause an 18 per cent reduction in the availability of worldwide water for agriculture by 2050. Meeting EFRs, which can necessitate more than 50 per cent of the mean annual run-off in a basin depending on its hydrograph, presents the single biggest threat to agricultural water availability. Next are increases in M&I demands, which are projected to increase upwards of 200 per cent by 2050 in developing countries with rapidly increasing populations and incomes. Climate change will affect the spatial and temporal distribution of run-off, and thus affect availability from the supply side. The combined effect of these factors can be dramatic in particular hotspots, which include northern Africa, India, China, parts of Europe, the western US and eastern Australia, among others.     

内陆河干旱区生态需水分析

根据水分驱动生态演变模型 ,以水分运动和补给条件 ,研究了内陆河平原生态系统的需水结构。生态需水分为过渡带生态需水 ,绿洲生态需水 ;绿洲生态需水又进一步分为天然绿洲生态需水和人工绿洲生态需水。通过流域水分平衡和地面观测资料确定了生态圈层结构的水分需求 ,以及降水与径流对水分需求的补给比例。生态需水的分析计算 ,类似于供需平衡分析。从植物生理角度分析生态需水 ,得到天然植被的总腾发量 Et,作为植被生态需水总量。各典型天然植被的 Et通过实验资料获得。将植被和水面的总生态需水量扣除有效降水补充的部分 ,即为径流性生态需水量 GE。另一方面 ,以流域为单元进行降水和径流统一考虑的水分综合平衡 ,进行生态可利用水量分析。得到生态系统可能实际利用的径流性水资源量 GR。　　将生态需水量 GE与生态系统可能实际利用的水资源量 GR进行平衡分析 ,计算实际生态耗水 ,并分析盐碱地无效耗水。根据 2 0 2 0年生态状态情景分析 ,作出了 2 0 2 0年生态需水与生态系统结构演变的预测     

Analysis of cellular water content in T cells reveals a switch from slow metabolic water gain to rapid water influx prior to cell division

Cell growth is driven by the acquisition and synthesis of both dry biomass and water mass. In this study, we examine the increase of water mass in T cell during cell growth. We found that T-cell growth is characterized by an initial phase of slow increase in cellular water, followed by a second phase of rapid increase in water content. To study the origin of the water gain, we developed a novel methodology we call cold aqua trap-isotope ratio mass spectrometry, which allows analysis of the isotope composition of intracellular water. Applying cold aqua trap-isotope ratio mass spectrometry, we discovered that glycolysis-coupled metabolism of water accounts on average for 11 fl out of the 20 fl of water gained per cell during the initial slow phase. In addition, we show that at the end of the rapid phase before initiation of cell division, a water influx occurs, increasing the cellular water mass by threefold. Thus, we conclude that activated T cells switch from metabolizing water to rapidly taking up water from the extracellular medium prior to cell division. Our work provides a method to analyze cell water content as well as insights into the ways cells regulate their water mass.     

不同土壤含水量下侧柏幼树叶片水分利用效率

对植物水分利用效率的研究,可以揭示植物的内在耗水机制,为区域森林生态系统经营与维护提供依据.本研究以侧柏幼树为研究对象,通过室内控制试验设置不同的土壤水分梯度,分别用气体交换法和稳定同位素法对其不同土壤含水量条件下的瞬时水分利用效率(WUE_gs)和短期水分利用效率(WUE_cp)进行研究.结果表明:受气孔导度(g_s)的影响,叶片净光合速率(P_n)和蒸腾速率(T_r)随土壤含水量的增加呈现相同的变化趋势,均在土壤含水量为70%～80%田间持水量(FC)时达到最大值;叶片WUE_gs则在土壤含水量最低(35%～45% FC)时达到最大值(7.26 mmol·m^-2·s^-1).叶片可溶性糖、枝条韧皮部渗出液的δ¹³C都在土壤含水量最低(35%～45% FC)条件下达到最大值,且叶片可溶性糖的δ¹³C明显高于枝条韧皮部渗出液的δ¹³C,未产生明显分馏;而叶片WUE_cp也在土壤含水量最低(35%～45% FC)时达到最大值(7.26 mmol·m^-2·s^-1).相同条件下,叶片WUE_gs和WUE_cp存在一定差异(平均相差0.52 mmol·m^-2·s^-1),WUE_gs时空变异性较大,而WUE_cp更具有代表性.侧柏幼树通过降低生理生态活动和提高水分利用效率来适应干旱的土壤条件.     

On the osmotically unresponsive water compartment in cells

Differences in colligative properties (freezing point, boiling point, vapor pressure and osmotic behavior) between water in living cells and pure bulk water were investigated by re-evaluating reports of the osmotic behavior of mammalian cells. In five different animal cells, osmotically unresponsive water (OUW) values ranged from 1.1 to 2.2 g per g dry mass. Detailed analysis of human red blood cell (RBC) data indicates a major role for hemoglobin OUW-values, aggregation and packing in cell volume regulation that can be explained for the first time in relevant molecular terms.     

基于水质管理目标的博斯腾湖生态水位研究

人类开发活动导致湖泊生态功能严重退化,研究湖泊生态水位对于维持湖泊生态系统健康意义重大。针对博斯腾湖化学需氧量(COD)浓度较高的水环境现状,分析博斯腾湖水位和COD浓度关系,研究提出基于水质管理目标的生态水位,以期为博斯腾湖水资源、水环境管理提供参考。结果表明,博斯腾湖水位与水体COD浓度显著负相关,但由于COD浓度空间差异较大以及影响因素不唯一,水位与COD浓度两者之间曲线估计结果不理想。为实现博斯腾湖COD浓度小于20 mg/L的水质管理目标,引入累计水位概念进行统计分析得到两个特征水位:所有COD浓度大于等于20 mg/L的数据对应水位的平均值为1046.02 m,该水位在历史丰水期水位的频率为60.83%,可作为最小生态水位;所有COD`浓度小于等于20 mg/L的数据对应水位的平均值为1046.4 m,该水位在历史丰水期水位的频率为44.70%,可作为适宜生态水位。适宜生态水位1046.4 m与已有研究成果基本相符,博斯腾湖在1046.4 m时既有利于水质管理,也可保障湖泊整体生态系统健康。     

启东海域水质营养状况及其与陆域农村水环境质量的关系

根据启东近岸海域2003—2009年7个站点的监测数据,研究了该海域的水质营养状况,并初步分析了与相邻陆域农村水环境质量的关系。结果表明:除平台站点之外,多数站点的COD、DIN、DIP和DO有增加的趋势;仅平台站点在2003年未富营养化,其他6站点都处于富营养状态,在2007年富营养化指数达到最高值,其后逐年显著降低;2003—2009年重污染海域比例达到4.1%,在2007和2008年是污染较为严重的年份;富营养化指数与综合标准指数之间存在显著的正线性相关;相对于城市工业生产生活排放,启东近岸陆域农村水环境质量变化和长江径流对近岸水质营养状况的影响较小。     

Oxygen isotope ratios between soil water and stem water of trees in pot experiments

Since the oxygen isotopic ratio of water extracted from stems reflects that of water taken up by roots, the stem water isotope ratio can be used to analyze the source of water for plant growth. However, it is known that the fractionation of isotopes during evaporation from the surface soil increases the isotope ratio in soil water drastically. In this study, it was experimentally confirmed that the stem water of Elaeocarpus sylvestris vs. ellipticus Hara seedlings is not isotopically similar to the water source in the case where evaporation from the soil occurs actively. However, since water in these plant bodies was replaced in about 2 days in the pot experiments, the 2-day-averaged values of the soil water isotope ratio approached the stem water isotope ratio. Thus, time-course samplings of the soil and stems, and measurements of the replacement time of water in the plant body (water volume in plant/transpiration rate) are recommended for correct interpretation of the isotopic signature of soil water and stem water.     

水胁迫下多角度幼龄檀香图像颜色变化分析及含水率反演

干旱与水淹胁迫是植物遭受的主要非生物胁迫,对植物的生理活动造成严重影响.本研究基于单反相机获取幼龄檀香的纵向和冠层叶片图像,使用分割算法提取叶片和颜色特征,然后讨论两种胁迫条件下多角度檀香叶片颜色变化及含水率反演.结果表明:干旱组在胁迫前期(前6d)叶片亮度降低,绿色分量增加,之后叶片亮度增加,绿色分量降低;水淹组叶片在整个胁迫周期亮度持续降低,黄色分量增加;对照组则与干旱组的变化趋势类似,但拐点出现的时间较晚.当叶片含水率在50%~70%时,随着含水率的增加,彩色图像的红(R)、绿(G)、蓝(B)通道值均会减小;但当叶片含水率小于40%时,会出现R通道值大于G通道值的现象.在使用极限学习机反演含水率时,校正后的颜色分量对拟合优度及预测精度均有所提高.纵向图像更适合用来反演叶片的含水量,决定系数和平均绝对百分比误差分别为0.8352和2.3%;而冠层图像对叶片等效水厚度的表达更准确,上述指标分别为0.7924和9.3%.     

Chironomids and regional water types

The distribution pattern of 115 chironomid taxa at 664 sites, distributed over all kinds of water, was analyzed and related to 42 water types, based on the complete macrofauna composition. The distinction of chironomid groups was not useful to recognize water types. The use of individual chironomid taxa was more sensitive, though also too limited to recognize water types clearly. Chironomids are distributed along a continuum which is directed by master factors and detailed by habitat factors.     

基于ESTDA模型的中国水生态足迹及水生态压力评价

基于水足迹视角,测度了中国31个省份2000-2018年的水生态足迹广度、深度及水生态压力,采用ESTDA框架对其时空动态特征进行分析。结果表明：①研究期内,中国水生态足迹总量呈波动上升态势;水生态承载力波动幅度较大,空间分布格局整体呈现自东南向西北逐渐较少的趋势。②水生态足迹广度与水生态承载力呈同步变化趋势,整体上已接近水资源可提供的流量资本上限,各省市水生态足迹深度差异较大。③研究期内,水生态压力指数小于1的区域与水生态足迹深度为1的区域相吻合,水生态压力指数大于1的区域主要分布在华北及西北地区。④LISA时间路径表明,水生态足迹广度、深度及水生态压力的整体空间格局均具有较强的稳定性;三者的局部空间结构在空间依赖方向上的稳定性依次加强;空间格局演化的空间整合性呈现水生态足迹深度 > 水生态压力 > 水生态足迹广度,空间上,水生态足迹广度正向协同增长省份主要集中于南方省份,而水生态足迹深度和水生态压力正向协同增长区则分布于华北、西北地区;各要素的空间分布格局表现出较强的路径依赖及锁定特征。     

Rutland water raw water quality — problems and management

The options available for the management of Rutland Water are identified and their use discussed. The changes in the chemistry of the stored water with regard to sulphate, silica (molybdate-reactive), dissolved reactive phosphate and total oxidised nitrogen are shown.     

Relationships between mercury in lake water,water colour and mercury in fish

The relationship between mercury content in fish (pike and perch), the different fractions of mercury in lake water and water color was investigated in 76, mainly oligotrophic lakes distributed over a large part of Sweden. The lakes were classified in terms of drainage area characteristics, lake morphometry and water chemistry. The dominant fraction of mercury in lake water was RIHg (fraction reducible to elemental mercury by NaBH₄). RIHg and water color were strongly positively correlated. Water color (determined by the comparative method using colored disks) was used as a surrogate for the amount of humic matter in the water. Thus, humic matter appears to be acting as an important carrier of mercury. A positive relationship between mercury content in fish and water color was found only in deep lakes (average depth > 5 m). It is suggested that the bioavailability of mercury attached to humic matter increases due to anoxic conditions, common in the hypolimnion of deep lakes.