Self-consistent estimation of mislocated fixations during reading

During reading, we generate saccadic eye movements to move words into the center of the visual field for word processing. However, due to systematic and random errors in the oculomotor system, distributions of within-word landing positions are rather broad and show overlapping tails, which suggests that a fraction of fixations is mislocated and falls on words to the left or right of the selected target word. Here we propose a new procedure for the self-consistent estimation of the likelihood of mislocated fixations in normal reading. Our approach is based on iterative computation of the proportions of several types of oculomotor errors, the underlying probabilities for word-targeting, and corrected distributions of landing positions. We found that the average fraction of mislocated fixations ranges from about 10% to more than 30% depending on word length. These results show that fixation probabilities are strongly affected by oculomotor errors.     

Dyslexic children are confronted with unstable binocular fixation while reading

Reading requires three-dimensional motor control: saccades bring the eyes from left to right, fixating word after word; and oblique saccades bring the eyes to the next line of the text. The angle of vergence of the two optic axes should be adjusted to the depth of the book or screen and--most importantly--should be maintained in a sustained manner during saccades and fixations. Maintenance of vergence is important as it is a prerequisite for a single clear image of each word to be projected onto the fovea of the eyes. Deficits in the binocular control of saccades and of vergence in dyslexics have been reported previously but only for tasks using single targets. This study examines saccades and vergence control during real text reading. Thirteen dyslexic and seven non-dyslexic children read the French text "L'Allouette" in two viewing distances (40 cm vs. 100 cm), while binocular eye movements were measured with the Chronos Eye-tracking system. We found that the binocular yoking of reading saccades was poor in dyslexic children (relative to non-dyslexics) resulting in vergence errors; their disconjugate drift during fixations was not correlated with the disconjugacy during their saccades, causing considerable variability of vergence angle from fixation to fixation. Due to such poor oculomotor adjustments during reading, the overall fixation disparity was larger for dyslexic children, putting larger demand on their sensory fusion processes. Moreover, for dyslexics the standard deviation of fixation disparity was larger particularly when reading at near distance. We conclude that besides documented phoneme processing disorders, visual/ocular motor imperfections may exist in dyslexics that lead to fixation instability and thus, to instability of the letters or words during reading; such instability may perturb fusional processes and might--in part--complicate letter/word identification.     

An Eye Movement Study on the Role of the Visual Field Defect in Pure Alexia

Pure alexia is a severe impairment of word reading which is usually accompanied by a right-sided visual field defect. Patients with pure alexia exhibit better preserved writing and a considerable word length effect, claimed to result from a serial letter processing strategy. Two experiments compared the eye movements of four patients with pure alexia to controls with simulated visual field defects (sVFD) when reading single words. Besides differences in response times and differential effects of word length on word reading in both groups, fixation durations and the occurrence of a serial, letter-by-letter fixation strategy were investigated. The analyses revealed quantitative and qualitative differences between pure alexic patients and unimpaired individuals reading with sVFD. The patients with pure alexia read words slower and exhibited more fixations. The serial, letter-by-letter fixation strategy was observed only in the patients but not in the controls with sVFD. It is argued that the VFD does not cause pure alexic reading.     

Binocular coordination during reading]

Is there an effect on binocular coordination during reading of oculomotor imbalance (heterophoria, strabismus and inadequate convergence) and of functional lateral characteristics (eye preference and perceptually privileged visual laterality)? Recordings of the binocular eye-movements of ten-year-old children show that oculomotor imbalances occur most often among children whose left visual perceptual channel is privileged, and that these subjects can present optomotor dissociation and manifest lack of motor coordination. Close binocular motor coordination is far from being the norm in reading. The faster reader displays saccades of differing spatial amplitude and the slower reader an oculomotor hyperactivity, especially during fixations. The recording of binocular movements in reading appears to be an excellent means of diagnosing difficulties related to visual laterality and to problems associated with oculomotor imbalance.     

The knowledge base of the oculomotor system.

In everyday life, eye movements enable the eyes to gather the information required for motor actions. They are thus proactive, anticipating actions rather than just responding to stimuli. This means that the oculomotor system needs to know where to look and what to look for. Using examples from table tennis, driving and music reading we show that the information the eye movement system requires is very varied in origin and highly task specific, and it is suggested that the control program or schema for a particular action must include directions for the oculomotor and visual processing systems. In many activities (reading text and music, typing, steering) processed information is held in a memory buffer for a period of about a second. This permits a match between the discontinuous input from the eyes and continuous motor output, and in particular allows the eyes to be involved in more than one task.     

Mechanisms of neural integration in the parietal lobe for visual attention.

The impulse discharges of neurons in the inferior parietal association cortex (area 7) were studied in the alert, behaving rhesus monkey, trained to fixate and follow visual targets. Four classes of cells related to visual or visuomotor function were found. Cells of one of these are sensitive to visual stimuli and have large, contralateral receptive fields with maximal sensitivity in the far temporal quadrants. Cells of the other three classes are related to visuomotor functions: visual fixation, tracking, and saccades. They are neither sensory nor motor in the usual sense for they are activated only by interested fixation of gaze or tracking, or before visually evoked saccadic eye movements. They are not activated during the spontaneous saccades and fixations that the monkey makes while casually exploring his environment. It is hypothesized that the light-sensitive neurons provide the visual input to the visuomotor cells that, in turn, produce a command signal for the direction of visual attention and for shifting the focus of attention from one target to another.     

Both Lexical and Non-Lexical Characters Are Processed during Saccadic Eye Movements

On average our eyes make 3–5 saccadic movements per second when we read, although their neural mechanism is still unclear. It is generally thought that saccades help redirect the retinal fovea to specific characters and words but that actual discrimination of information only occurs during periods of fixation. Indeed, it has been proposed that there is active and selective suppression of information processing during saccades to avoid experience of blurring due to the high-speed movement. Here, using a paradigm where a string of either lexical (Chinese) or non-lexical (alphabetic) characters are triggered by saccadic eye movements, we show that subjects can discriminate both while making saccadic eye movement. Moreover, discrimination accuracy is significantly better for characters scanned during the saccadic movement to a fixation point than those not scanned beyond it. Our results showed that character information can be processed during the saccade, therefore saccades during reading not only function to redirect the fovea to fixate the next character or word but allow pre-processing of information from the ones adjacent to the fixation locations to help target the next most salient one. In this way saccades can not only promote continuity in reading words but also actively facilitate reading comprehension.     

Which retinal and extra-retinal information is crucial for circular vection?

In contradistinction to conventional wisdom, we propose that retinal image slip of a visual scene (optokinetic pattern, OP) does not constitute the only crucial input for visually induced percepts of self-motion (vection). Instead, the hypothesis is investigated that there are three input factors: 1) OP retinal image slip, 2) motion of the ocular orbital shadows across the retinae, and 3) smooth pursuit eye movements (efference copy). To test this hypothesis, we visually induced percepts of sinusoidal rotatory self-motion (circular vection, CV) in the absence of vestibular stimulation. Subjects were presented with three concurrent stimuli: a large visual OP, a fixation point to be pursued with the eyes (both projected in superposition on a semi-circular screen), and a dark window frame placed close to the eyes to create artificial visual field boundaries that simulate ocular orbital rim boundary shadows, but which could be moved across the retinae independent from eye movements. In different combinations these stimuli were independently moved or kept stationary. When moved together (horizontally and sinusoidally around the subject's head), they did so in precise temporal synchrony at 0.05 Hz. The results show that the occurrence of CV requires retinal slip of the OP and/or relative motion between the orbital boundary shadows and the OP. On the other hand, CV does not develop when the two retinal slip signals equal each other (no relative motion) and concur with pursuit eye movements (as it is the case, e.g., when we follow with the eyes the motion of a target on a stationary visual scene). The findings were formalized in terms of a simulation model. In the model two signals coding relative motion between OP and head are fused and fed into the mechanism for CV, a visuo-oculomotor one, derived from OP retinal slip and eye movement efference copy, and a purely visual signal of relative motion between the orbital rims (head) and the OP. The latter signal is also used, together with a version of the oculomotor efference copy, for a mechanism that suppresses CV at a later stage of processing in conditions in which the retinal slip signals are self-generated by smooth pursuit eye movements.     

Object Learning Improves Feature Extraction but Does Not Improve Feature Selection

A single glance at your crowded desk is enough to locate your favorite cup. But finding an unfamiliar object requires more effort. This superiority in recognition performance for learned objects has at least two possible sources. For familiar objects observers might: 1) select more informative image locations upon which to fixate their eyes, or 2) extract more information from a given eye fixation. To test these possibilities, we had observers localize fragmented objects embedded in dense displays of random contour fragments. Eight participants searched for objects in 600 images while their eye movements were recorded in three daily sessions. Performance improved as subjects trained with the objects: The number of fixations required to find an object decreased by 64% across the 3 sessions. An ideal observer model that included measures of fragment confusability was used to calculate the information available from a single fixation. Comparing human performance to the model suggested that across sessions information extraction at each eye fixation increased markedly, by an amount roughly equal to the extra information that would be extracted following a 100% increase in functional field of view. Selection of fixation locations, on the other hand, did not improve with practice.     

Eye position affects orienting of visuospatial attention

The ability to detect an incoming visual stimulus is enhanced by knowledge of stimulus location (orienting of visuospatial attention). Although the brain mechanisms at the basis of this enhancement are not yet fully clarified, there is evidence that orienting of attention is accompanied by the activation of oculomotor circuits. It remains unclear, however, whether this oculomotor activity is an epiphenomenon or is functionally related to the attentional process. Attentional benefits are usually measured by the classical Posner paradigm. When subjects fixate centrally and are requested to detect a visual stimulus that could appear in an attended or unattended location, they react faster to stimuli appearing in the attended one. Here, we demonstrate that in monocular vision visuospatial attention was significantly modulated by the position of the eye in the orbit. When the screen was placed 40 degrees to the right or to the left of subjects' sagittal plane, attentional benefits for stimuli appearing in subjects' temporal spatial hemifield dramatically decayed, even if the retinal stimulation was exactly the same as in the classical paradigm. The finding that eyes and attention show a common limit stop point supports their close functional coupling.     

Eye Movements Reveal Effects of Visual Content on Eye Guidance and Lexical Access during Reading

Background

Normal reading requires eye guidance and activation of lexical representations so that words in text can be identified accurately. However, little is known about how the visual content of text supports eye guidance and lexical activation, and thereby enables normal reading to take place.

Methods and Findings

To investigate this issue, we investigated eye movement performance when reading sentences displayed as normal and when the spatial frequency content of text was filtered to contain just one of 5 types of visual content: very coarse, coarse, medium, fine, and very fine. The effect of each type of visual content specifically on lexical activation was assessed using a target word of either high or low lexical frequency embedded in each sentence

Results

No type of visual content produced normal eye movement performance but eye movement performance was closest to normal for medium and fine visual content. However, effects of lexical frequency emerged early in the eye movement record for coarse, medium, fine, and very fine visual content, and were observed in total reading times for target words for all types of visual content.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that while the orchestration of multiple scales of visual content is required for normal eye-guidance during reading, a broad range of visual content can activate processes of word identification independently. Implications for understanding the role of visual content in reading are discussed.     

Different programming modes of human saccadic eye movements as a function of stimulus eccentricity: Indications of a functional subdivision of the visual field

1. Voluntary saccadic eye movements were made toward flashes of light on the horizontal meridian, whose duration and distance from the point of fixation were varied; eye movements were measured using d.c.-electrooculography.—2. Targets within 10°–15° eccentricity are usually reached by one saccadic eye movement. When the eyes turn toward targets of more than 10°–15° eccentricity, the first saccadic eye movement falls short of the target by an angle usually not exceeding 10°. The presence of the image of the target off the fovea (visual error signal) subsequent to such an undershoot elicits, after a short interval, corrective saccades (usually one) which place the image of the target on the fovea. In the absence of a visual error signal, the probability of occurrence of corrective saccades is low, but it increases with greater target eccentricities. These observations suggest that there are different, eccentricity-dependent modes of programming saccadic eye movements.—3. Saccadic eye movements appear to be programmed in retinal coordinates. This conclusion is based on the observations that, irrespective of the initial position of the eyes in the orbit, a) there are different programming modes for eye movements to targets within and beyond 10°–15° from the fixation point, and b_ the maximum velocity of saccadic eye movements is always reached at 25° to 30° target eccentricity. —4. Distributions of latency and intersaccadic interval (ISI) are frequently multimodal, with a separation between modes of 30 to 40 msec. These observations suggest that saccadic eye movements are produced by mechanisms which, at a frequency of 30 Hz, process visual information. —5. Corrective saccades may occur after extremely short intervals (30 to 60 msec) regardless of whether or not a visual error signal is present; the eyes may not even come to a complete stop during these very short intersaccadic intervals. It is suggested that these corrective saccades are triggered by errors in the programming of the initial saccadic eye movements, and not by a visual error signal. —6. The exitence of different, eccentricity-dependent programming modes of saccadic eye movements, is further supported by anatomical, physiological, psychophysical, and neuropathological observations that suggest a dissociation of visual functions dependent on retinal eccentricity. Saccadic eye movements to targets more eccentric than 10°–15° appear to be executed by a mechanism involving the superior colliculus (perhaps independent of the visual cortex), whereas saccadic eye movements to less eccentric targets appear to depend on a mechanism involving the geniculo-cortical pathway (perhaps in collaboration with the superior colliculus).     

Spatiotopic transfer of visual-form adaptation across saccadic eye movements

Although conscious perception is smooth and continuous, the input to the visual system is a series of short, discrete fixations interleaved with rapid shifts of the eye. One possible explanation for visual stability is that internal maps of objects and their visual properties are remapped around the time of saccades, but numerous studies have demonstrated that visual patterns are not combined across saccades. Here, we report that visual-form aftereffects transfer across separate fixations when adaptor and test are presented in the same spatial position. The magnitude of the transsaccadic adaptation increased with stimulus complexity, suggesting a progressive construction of spatiotopic receptive fields along the visual-form pathway. These results demonstrate that basic shape information is combined across saccades, allowing for predictive and consistent information from the past to be incorporated into each new fixation.     

Predicting the eye fixation locations in the gray scale images in the visual scenes with different semantic contents

In recent years, there has been considerable interest in visual attention models (saliency map of visual attention). These models can be used to predict eye fixation locations, and thus will have many applications in various fields which leads to obtain better performance in machine vision systems. Most of these models need to be improved because they are based on bottom-up computation that does not consider top-down image semantic contents and often does not match actual eye fixation locations. In this study, we recorded the eye movements (i.e., fixations) of fourteen individuals who viewed images which consist natural (e.g., landscape, animal) and man-made (e.g., building, vehicles) scenes. We extracted the fixation locations of eye movements in two image categories. After extraction of the fixation areas (a patch around each fixation location), characteristics of these areas were evaluated as compared to non-fixation areas. The extracted features in each patch included the orientation and spatial frequency. After feature extraction phase, different statistical classifiers were trained for prediction of eye fixation locations by these features. This study connects eye-tracking results to automatic prediction of saliency regions of the images. The results showed that it is possible to predict the eye fixation locations by using of the image patches around subjects’ fixation points.     

Neural correlates of visual localization and perisaccadic mislocalization

While reading this text, your eyes jump from word to word. Yet you are unaware of the motion this causes on your retina; the brain somehow compensates for these displacements and creates a stable percept of the world. This compensation is not perfect; perisaccadically, perceptual space is distorted. We show that this distortion can be traced to a representation of retinal position in the medial temporal and medial superior temporal areas. These cells accurately represent retinal position during fixation, but perisaccadically, the same cells distort the representation of space. The time course and magnitude of this distortion are similar to the mislocalization found psychophysically in humans. This challenges the assumption in many psychophysical studies that the perisaccadic retinal position signal is veridical.     

Immaturity of the oculomotor saccade and vergence interaction in dyslexic children: evidence from a reading and visual search study

Studies comparing binocular eye movements during reading and visual search in dyslexic children are, at our knowledge, inexistent. In the present study we examined ocular motor characteristics in dyslexic children versus two groups of non dyslexic children with chronological/reading age-matched. Binocular eye movements were recorded by an infrared system (mobileEBT®, e(ye)BRAIN) in twelve dyslexic children (mean age 11 years old) and a group of chronological age-matched (N = 9) and reading age-matched (N = 10) non dyslexic children. Two visual tasks were used: text reading and visual search. Independently of the task, the ocular motor behavior in dyslexic children is similar to those reported in reading age-matched non dyslexic children: many and longer fixations as well as poor quality of binocular coordination during and after the saccades. In contrast, chronological age-matched non dyslexic children showed a small number of fixations and short duration of fixations in reading task with respect to visual search task; furthermore their saccades were well yoked in both tasks. The atypical eye movement''s patterns observed in dyslexic children suggest a deficiency in the visual attentional processing as well as an immaturity of the ocular motor saccade and vergence systems interaction.     

Shorter Lines Facilitate Reading in Those Who Struggle

People with dyslexia, who ordinarily struggle to read, sometimes remark that reading is easier when e-readers are used. Here, we used eye tracking to observe high school students with dyslexia as they read using these devices. Among the factors investigated, we found that reading using a small device resulted in substantial benefits, improving reading speeds by 27%, reducing the number of fixations by 11%, and importantly, reducing the number of regressive saccades by more than a factor of 2, with no cost to comprehension. Given that an expected trade-off between horizontal and vertical regression was not observed when line lengths were altered, we speculate that these effects occur because sluggish attention spreads perception to the left as the gaze shifts during reading. Short lines eliminate crowded text to the left, reducing regression. The effects of attention modulation by the hand, and of increased letter spacing to reduce crowding, were also found to modulate the oculomotor dynamics in reading, but whether these factors resulted in benefits or costs depended on characteristics, such as visual attention span, that varied within our sample.     

Eye movements in the process of reading as an indicator of development of reading skill

The parameters of oculomotor activity were investigated using the video recording method when texts of different complexity were read by pupils with various reading skill levels. The parameters of eye movements and their determination have been described. It has been shown that the total reading time, the average duration of fixations, and the total number of regressions decrease, and the amplitude of progressive and regressive saccades increases as the reading skill is formed, which testifies to the perfection of the mechanisms of implementing the cognitive processes that form the basis of reading.     

Fix your eyes in the space you could reach: neurons in the macaque medial parietal cortex prefer gaze positions in peripersonal space

Interacting in the peripersonal space requires coordinated arm and eye movements to visual targets in depth. In primates, the medial posterior parietal cortex (PPC) represents a crucial node in the process of visual-to-motor signal transformations. The medial PPC area V6A is a key region engaged in the control of these processes because it jointly processes visual information, eye position and arm movement related signals. However, to date, there is no evidence in the medial PPC of spatial encoding in three dimensions. Here, using single neuron recordings in behaving macaques, we studied the neural signals related to binocular eye position in a task that required the monkeys to perform saccades and fixate targets at different locations in peripersonal and extrapersonal space. A significant proportion of neurons were modulated by both gaze direction and depth, i.e., by the location of the foveated target in 3D space. The population activity of these neurons displayed a strong preference for peripersonal space in a time interval around the saccade that preceded fixation and during fixation as well. This preference for targets within reaching distance during both target capturing and fixation suggests that binocular eye position signals are implemented functionally in V6A to support its role in reaching and grasping.     

Latency of visually evoked saccadic eye movements

The validness of a model describing the relation between mean saccadic latency and stimulus asynchrony based on facilitation instead of suppression was tested experimentally. As a result, suppression of signals generated by the onset of a peripheral stimulus due to fixation of another target, giving rise to an increase of mean saccadic latency, does not seem very likely. The influence of the intensity of the fixation target on the latency of visually evoked saccades was studied. According to the facilitation model, the offset of the fixation target induces after an afferent delay, a transition of the state of the facilitation mechanism from the unfacilitated condition into a mode of maximal facilitation. The time-period during which this change is accomplished is called Facilitation-Rise-Time (FRT). An interpretation within the context of the facilitation model of gap-overlap latency data for different values of the intensity of the fixation stimulus suggests, in combination with computer-computations of the model, that lowering of this intensity causes an increase in FRT. The results in normal subjects of step stimulus experiments with a dim fixation point substantiate the hypothesis of a facilitation mechanism, which is triggerable not only by an external signal such as the offset of the fixation point, but also by some internal stimulus independent signal. Moreover, data for tracking by an amblyopic eye seem to support this conclusion. The findings of increased saccadic latencies in amblyopic and Optic Neuritis (ON) eyes suggest a slowing of processing of visual information in the sensory pathways from the central retina, subsequently utilized by the oculomotor system in the generation of saccades.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)