Microcalorimetric investigation of metabolism in rat hepatocytes cultured on microplates and in cell suspensions

In the present work, heat production rate in rat hepatocytes has been measured by use of thermopile heat conduction calorimeters. Both hepatocytes cultured in monolayers on microplates and hepatocytes in suspensions were used for microcalorimetric measurements. The highest heat production rate was found in newly cultured cells; thereafter, a gradual decrease was noted. After 1 day of culture, metabolic activity had reached a steady state that lasted about 4 days. A cell-density dependence of heat production was found, both in cell suspensions and in cultured hepatocytes on microplates. Higher cell concentration in the calorimeter ampoule was accompanied by decreasing heat production per cell. The heat output recorded for hepatocytes cultured on microplates (25 X 10(3) cells) was found to be 0.327 +/- 0.13 nW per cell after 24-48 h. Addition of sodium azide and sodium fluoride to tissue culture medium reduced heat production rate in cultured hepatocytes by 60 and 20%, respectively. Recording of heat production with the present calorimetric technique is relatively simple and fast, and offers the possibility to perform measurements in small samples of cultured hepatocytes on microplates, thus allowing long-term as well as repeated measurements on the same cell population.     

Isoniazid resistance of exponentially growing Mycobacterium smegmatis biofilm culture

Biofilm growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis was found to be unaffected at an isoniazid concentration that inhibited growth of planktonic bacilli (i.e. at isoniazid minimum inhibitory concentration=10 microg ml(-1)). Significant growth (50% of drug-free control) of biofilms was observed at up to 40 microg ml(-1) and the MIC for biofilm growth showed an increase to up to 80 microg ml(-1) isoniazid. Thus, the biofilm growth modus appears to be a strategy for replicating bacilli to evade the onslaught of antibacterials.     

Biofilm formation by the yeast Rhodotorula mucilaginosa: process, repeatability and cell attachment in a continuous biofilm reactor

Yeast biofilms contribute to quality impairment of industrial processes and also play an important role in clinical infections. Little is known about biofilm formation and their treatment. The aim of this study was to establish a multi-layer yeast biofilm model using a modified 3.7 l bench-top bioreactor operated in continuous mode (D = 0.12 h(-1)). The repeatability of biofilm formation was tested by comparing five bioprocesses with Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, a strain isolated from washing machines. The amount of biofilm formed after 6 days post inoculation was 83 μg cm(-2) protein, 197 μg cm(-2) polysaccharide and 6.9 × 10(6) CFU cm(-2) on smooth polypropylene surfaces. Roughening the surface doubled the amount of biofilm but also increased its spatial variability. Plasma modification of polypropylene significantly reduced the hydrophobicity but did not enhance cell attachment. The biofilm formed on polypropylene coupons could be used for sanitation studies.     

Analyses of spatial distributions of sulfate-reducing bacteria and their activity in aerobic wastewater biofilms.

The vertical distribution of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in aerobic wastewater biofilms grown on rotating disk reactors was investigated by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with 16S rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes. To correlate the vertical distribution of SRB populations with their activity, the microprofiles of O(2), H(2)S, NO(2)(-), NO(3)(-), NH(4)(+), and pH were measured with microelectrodes. In addition, a cross-evaluation of the FISH and microelectrode analyses was performed by comparing them with culture-based approaches and biogeochemical measurements. In situ hybridization revealed that a relatively high abundance of the probe SRB385-stained cells (approximately 10(9) to 10(10) cells per cm(3) of biofilm) were evenly distributed throughout the biofilm, even in the oxic surface. The probe SRB660-stained Desulfobulbus spp. were found to be numerically important members of SRB populations (approximately 10(8) to 10(9) cells per cm(3)). The result of microelectrode measurements showed that a high sulfate-reducing activity was found in a narrow anaerobic zone located about 150 to 300 microm below the biofilm surface and above which an intensive sulfide oxidation zone was found. The biogeochemical measurements showed that elemental sulfur (S(0)) was an important intermediate of the sulfide reoxidation in such thin wastewater biofilms (approximately 1,500 microm), which accounted for about 75% of the total S pool in the biofilm. The contribution of an internal Fe-sulfur cycle to the overall sulfur cycle in aerobic wastewater biofilms was insignificant (less than 1%) due to the relatively high sulfate reduction rate.     

Mycobacterium xenopi and drinking water biofilms

The ability of Mycobacterium xenopi to colonize an experimental drinking water distribution system (a Propella reactor) was investigated. M. xenopi was present in the biofilm within an hour following its introduction. After 9 weeks, it was always present in the outlet water (1 to 10 CFU 100 ml(-1)) and inside the biofilm (10(2) to 10(3) CFU cm(-2)). Biofilms may be considered reservoirs for the survival of M. xenopi.     

Biofilm culture of Pseudomonas aeruginosa expressing lux genes as a model to study susceptibility to antimicrobials

A simple in vitro model for culture of biofilm populations of self-bioluminescent Pseudomonas aeruginosa was used for real-time monitoring of the effects of ciprofloxacin. Biofilms of these organisms were established within Sorbarod filters, perfused with a chemically defined simple salts medium. The biofilm population was shown to achieve a pseudo-steady state which was reproducible and stable over several days. The viability of membrane-associated and eluted cells was assessed by spread plate viable counts and by monitoring bioluminescence as a measure of metabolic activity. Pseudo-steady state biofilms were exposed to 5x MIC ciprofloxacin (0.3 mg x l(-1)) in the perfusing medium for 1 h. Whilst both methods for viability assessment indicated an immediate reduction in viable cell numbers, the decline recorded with bioluminescence was greater. The use of bioluminescent bacteria proved to be a rapid and sensitive method for the measurement of real-time antibacterial effects on a bacterial biofilm.     

Differences in biofilm and planktonic cell mediated reduction of metalloid oxyanions

This study compares Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 biofilm and planktonic cell susceptibility to the selenium and tellurium oxyanions selenite (SeO3(2-)), tellurate (TeO4(2-)), and tellurite (TeO3(2-)). P. aeruginosa planktonic and biofilm cultures reduced the selenium and tellurium oxyanions to orange and black end-products (respectively) and were equally tolerant to killing by these metalloid compounds. S. aureus planktonic cell cultures processed these metalloid oxyanions in a similar way, but the corresponding biofilm cultures did not. S. aureus biofilms were approximately two and five times more susceptible to killing by tellurate and tellurite (respectively) than the corresponding planktonic cultures. Our data indicate that the means of reducing metalloid oxyanions may differ between the physiology displayed in biofilm and planktonic cultures of the same bacterial strain.     

纳米银离子对表皮葡萄球菌生物膜形成过程的影响

目的探讨纳米银离子对表皮葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus epidermidis)生物膜(biofilm)形成过程的影响。方法采用摇床法,以纳米银离子含量不同的乙烯-醋酸乙烯酯(Ethylene-Vinyl acetate,EVA)塑料为细菌粘附载体,建立体外生物膜模型;将各个时间点培养好的标本放在扫描电子显微镜(Scanning Electron Microscopy,SEM)及倒置显微镜下观察空白组与纳米银离子干预组中生物膜的形成情况,并结合NIS-Element BR软件计算生物膜覆盖率(biofilm coverage rate,BCR);荧光探针SYTO9/PI标记生物膜内细菌、激光共聚焦显微镜(Confocal LaserScanning Microscopy,CLSM)结合生物膜图形结构分析软件(Image Structure Analyze,ISA)观察纳米银离子作用后各时间点生物膜的结构变化。结果 2 d组生物膜经SEM检测,纳米银离子干预组较空白对照组相比,细菌变稀疏,结构明显受到破坏。BCR检测,0.5 d时纳米银离子干预组较空白对照组相比差异没有统计学意义,但在1 d、2 d时BCR差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。CLSM结合ISA软件分析结果显示,2 d时空白对照组与0.1%纳米银离子干预组生物膜厚度、平均扩散距离(average diffusion distance,ADD)和结构熵(textual entropy,TE),分别为17.55±2.08和11.33±0.98、3.12±0.30和1.93±0.13、5.79±和3.17±0.16(P<0.05);区域孔率(Areal porosity,AP)为0.90±0.01和0.98±0.01(P<0.05)。但5 d时2组参数之间差异没有统计学意义。0.05%纳米银离子组也有相同的趋势。结论纳米银离子对表皮葡萄球菌的形成有抑制作用,但随着时间的推移,其抗菌作用逐渐减弱。高浓度组较低浓度组抗菌效果更加明显,持续时间更长。     

Action of antimicrobial substances produced by different oil reservoir Bacillus strains against biofilm formation

Microbial colonization of petroleum industry systems takes place through the formation of biofilms, and can result in biodeterioration of the metal surfaces. In a previous study, two oil reservoir Bacillus strains (Bacillus licheniformis T6-5 and Bacillus firmus H₂O-1) were shown to produce antimicrobial substances (AMS) active against different Bacillus strains and a consortium of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) on solid medium. However, neither their ability to form biofilms nor the effect of the AMS on biofilm formation was adequately addressed. Therefore, here, we report that three Bacillus strains (Bacillus pumilus LF4—used as an indicator strain, B. licheniformis T6-5, and B. firmus H₂O-1), and an oil reservoir SRB consortium (T6lab) were grown as biofilms on glass surfaces. The AMS produced by strains T6-5 and H₂O-1 prevented the formation of B. pumilus LF4 biofilm and also eliminated pre-established LF4 biofilm. In addition, the presence of AMS produced by H₂O-1 reduced the viability and attachment of the SRB consortium biofilm by an order of magnitude. Our results suggest that the AMS produced by Bacillus strains T6-5 and H₂O-1 may have a potential for pipeline-cleaning technologies to inhibit biofilm formation and consequently reduce biocorrosion.     

A sensitive direct calorimeter for small mammals

A sensitive direct calorimeter for small animals is presented. Its principle is based on the measurement of the heat transfer from the animal chamber to a heat sink. The system gives repetitive measurements with a high efficiency and allows a detailed time-related measurement of the heat production by the whole animal. Its low response time can be advantageously used for the study of post-prandial heat generation and diet-induced thermogenesis. Data on the heat production by Wistar and lean and obese Zucker rats is also included.     

An optimized differential heat conduction solution microcalorimeter for thermal kinetic measurements

Heat conduction calorimeters are widely used in biological sciences, but baseline instability, low resolution, electrical noise and motion artifacts have limited their utility. Two main sources of noise, baseline fluctuation or drift and a motion artifact, were traced to amplifier drift, a small (0.015°C) gradient within the constant temperature cylinder, and the method of installing the thermopiles. The addition of heaters to the top and bottom of the cylinder reduced the gradient to approximately 0.003°C and greatly reduced the slow component of the motion artifact. The drift error was reduced by proper mounting of the amplifier and its external components and the enclosure of the calorimeter in a temperature-controlled box.An R-C model of the heat flow in the calorimeter was developed which was employed to discover several means of increasing sensitivity without increasing the rise-time of the calorimeter. Analysis, also based on the model, showed that variations in the air gap between the cell holder can be a major source of error when the calorimeter is used to investigate the kinetics of a chemical reaction. This analysis also showed that the time for the heat to flow through the solution through the solution in the cell can be the dominant factor in determining the rise-time of the instrument.The heat conduction calorimeter described here has improved characterics: a baseline stability of 200 nJ · s^?1 (peak-to-peak) over a 48 h period; a resolution of 200 nJ · s^?1; a sensitivity of 6.504 ± 0.045 J · V^?1 · s^?1 referred to the sensor output; and a rise-time of 122 s for the 10–90% response.     

Flowcell culture of Porphyromonas gingivalis biofilms under anaerobic conditions

We have developed an anaerobic biofilm culture system. The system is inexpensive, simple to use and, unlike an anaerobic glovebox, requires no dedicated space. As a test of the system, Porphyromonas gingivalis was cultured under low oxygen (1–2 ppm) and under anaerobic conditions (≤0.1 ppm O₂). In the presence of small amounts of oxygen, the organism attached and formed an initial biofilm over the course of 4 h, but the biofilm was unable to maintain its growth and had lost biomass after 18 h. Also, ambiguous results were obtained when the biofilm was stained with a viability stain. Under anaerobic conditions, the biofilm was able to continue growth — biomass was greater after 18 h than after 4 h, and the anaerobic biofilm had a less ambiguous staining pattern than did the low-O₂-grown biofilm.     

The biofilm architecture of sixty opportunistic pathogens deciphered using a high throughput CLSM method

This study proposes a high throughput method based on Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) combined with the use of 96-wells microtiter plates compatible with high resolution imaging for the study of biofilm formation and structure. As an illustration, the three-dimensional structures of biofilms formed by 60 opportunistic pathogens were thus observed and quantified. The results revealed the diversity of biofilm architectures. Specific spatial arrangement such as the mushroom-like structures already described for Pseudomonas aeruginosa was observed. Other features, such as hollow voids in microcolonies of Salmonella enterica strain Agona, were identified for the first time. The combined use of microplates and confocal imaging proved to be a good alternative to the other high throughput methods commonly used as it enables the direct, insitu, qualitative and quantitative characterization of biofilm architecture. This high content method should lead to a clearer understanding of the structure-function relationships implicated in biofilms traits.     

Successional development of sulfate-reducing bacterial populations and their activities in a wastewater biofilm growing under microaerophilic conditions

A combination of fluorescence in situ hybridization, microprofiles, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of PCR-amplified 16S ribosomal DNA fragments, and 16S rRNA gene cloning analysis was applied to investigate successional development of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) community structure and in situ sulfide production activity within a biofilm growing under microaerophilic conditions (dissolved oxygen concentration in the bulk liquid was in the range of 0 to 100 microM) and in the presence of nitrate. Microelectrode measurements showed that oxygen penetrated 200 microm from the surface during all stages of biofilm development. The first sulfide production of 0.32 micromol of H(2)S m(-2) s(-1) was detected below ca. 500 microm in the 3rd week and then gradually increased to 0.70 micromol H(2)S m(-2) s(-1) in the 8th week. The most active sulfide production zone moved upward to the oxic-anoxic interface and intensified with time. This result coincided with an increase in SRB populations in the surface layer of the biofilm. The numbers of the probe SRB385- and 660-hybridized SRB populations significantly increased to 7.9 x 10(9) cells cm(-3) and 3.6 x 10(9) cells cm(-3), respectively, in the surface 400 microm during an 8-week cultivation, while those populations were relatively unchanged in the deeper part of the biofilm, probably due to substrate transport limitation. Based on 16S rRNA gene cloning analysis data, clone sequences that related to Desulfomicrobium hypogeium (99% sequence similarity) and Desulfobulbus elongatus (95% sequence similarity) were most frequently found. Different molecular analyses confirmed that Desulfobulbus, Desulfovibrio, and Desulfomicrobium were found to be the numerically important members of SRB in this wastewater biofilm.     

Inhibition on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida albicans</Emphasis> biofilm formation using divalent cation chelators (EDTA)

Candida albicans can readily form biofilms on both inanimate and biological surfaces. In this study we investigated a means of inhibiting biofilm formation using EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid), a divalent cation chelating agent, which has been shown to affect C. albicans filamentation. Candida albicans biofilms were formed in 96-well microtitre plates. Cells were allowed to adhere for 1, 2, and 4 h at 37°C, washed in PBS, and then treated with different concentrations of EDTA (0, 2.5, 25, and 250 mM). EDTA was also added to the standardized suspension prior to adding to the microtiter plate and to a preformed 24 h biofilm. All plates were then incubated at 37°C for an additional 24 h to allow for biofilm formation. The extent and characteristics of biofilm formation were then microscopically assessed and with a semi-quantitative colorimetric technique based on the use of an XTT-reduction assay. Northern blot analysis of the hyphal wall protein (HWP1) expression was also monitored in planktonic and biofilm cells treated with EDTA. Microscopic analysis and colorimetric readings revealed that filamentation and biofilm formation were inhibited by EDTA in a concentration dependant manner. However, preformed biofilms were minimally affected by EDTA (maximum of 31% reduction at 250 mM). The HWP1 gene expression was reduced in EDTA-treated planktonic and biofilm samples. These results indicate that EDTA inhibits C. albicans biofilm formation are most likely through its inhibitory effect on filamentation and indicates the potential therapeutic effects of EDTA. This compound may serve a non-toxic means of preventing biofilm formation on infections with a C. albicans biofilm etiology.     

Higher throughput calorimetry: opportunities, approaches and challenges

Higher throughput thermodynamic measurements can provide value in structure-based drug discovery during fragment screening, hit validation, and lead optimization. Enthalpy can be used to detect and characterize ligand binding, and changes that affect the interaction of protein and ligand can sometimes be detected more readily from changes in the enthalpy of binding than from the corresponding free-energy changes or from protein-ligand structures. Newer, higher throughput calorimeters are being incorporated into the drug discovery process. Improvements in titration calorimeters come from extensions of a mature technology and face limitations in scaling. Conversely, array calorimetry, an emerging technology, shows promise for substantial improvements in throughput and material utilization, but improved sensitivity is needed.     

Analysis of size distribution and areal cell density of ammonia-oxidizing bacterial microcolonies in relation to substrate microprofiles in biofilms

A fine-scale in situ spatial organization of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) in biofilms was investigated by combining molecular techniques (i.e., fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and 16S rDNA-cloning analysis) and microelectrode measurements. Important parameters of AOB microcolonies such as size distribution and areal cell density of the microcolonies were determined and correlated with substrate microprofiles in the biofilms. In situ hybridization with a nested 16S rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probe set revealed two different populations of AOB, Nitrosomonas europaea-lineage and Nitrosospira multiformis-lineage, coexisting in an autotrophic nitrifying biofilm. Nitrosospira formed looser microcolonies, with an areal cell density of 0.51 cells microm(-2), which was half of the cell density of Nitrosomonas (1.12 cells microm(-2)). It is speculated that the formation of looser microcolonies facilitates substrate diffusion into the microcolonies, which might be a survival strategy to low O(2) and NH(4) (+) conditions in the biofilm. A long-term experiment (4-week cultivation at different substrate C/N ratios) revealed that the size distribution of AOB microcolonies was strongly affected by better substrate supply due to shorter distance from the surface and the presence of organic carbon. The microcolony size was relatively constant throughout the autotrophic nitrifying biofilm, while the size increased by approximately 80% toward the depth of the biofilm cultured at the substrate C/N = 1. A short-term ( approximately 3 h) organic carbon addition experiment showed that the addition of organic carbon created interspecies competition for O(2) between AOB and heterotrophic bacteria, which dramatically decreased the in situ NH(4) (+)-uptake activity of AOB in the surface of the biofilms. This result might explain the spatial distribution of AOB microcolony size in the biofilms cultured at the substrate C/N = 1. These experimental results suggest O(2) and organic carbon were the main factors controlling the spatial organization and activity of AOB in biofilms. These findings are significantly important to further improve mathematical models used to describe how the slow-growing AOB develop their niches in biofilms and how that configuration affects nitrification performance in the biofilm.     

Effect of fiber diameter on the behavior of biofilm and anodic performance of fiber electrodes in microbial fuel cells

A series of fiber electrodes with fiber diameters ranging from about 10 to 0.1 μm were tested as anodes in microbial fuel cells to study the effect of fiber diameter on the behavior of biofilm and anodic performance of fiber electrodes. A simple method of biofilm fixation and dehydration was developed for biofilm morphology characterization. Results showed that the current density of fiber anodes increased until the fiber diameter approached 1 μm which was about the length of the dominant microorganisms in biofilm. The highest current density was 3.08 mA cm(-2), which was obtained from fiber anode with high porosity of over 99% and fiber diameter of 0.87 μm. It was believed that the high current density was attributed to the high porosity, as well as proper fiber diameter which ensured formation of thick and continuous solid biofilms.     

Agarose stabilization of fragile biofilms for quantitative structure analysis

Agarose was used to stabilize fragile biofilms cultivated in parallel plate flow cells prior to imaging by confocal laser scanning microscopy. An essential element to the success of the procedure was the application of a ceramic heat pad to the flow cell to maintain agarose fluidity until the biofilm was enveloped. Quantitative digital image analysis demonstrated the effectiveness of this technique for generating reproducible measurements of a three-dimensional biofilm structure. The described method will also benefit researchers who transport their flow cell-cultivated biofilms to a core facility for imaging.