Activity of descending contralateral movement detector neurons and collision avoidance behaviour in response to head-on visual stimuli in locusts

We recorded the activity of the right and left descending contralateral movement detectors responding to 10-cm (small) or 20-cm (large) computer-generated spheres approaching along different trajectories in the locust's frontal field of view. In separate experiments we examined the steering responses of tethered flying locusts to identical stimuli. The descending contralateral movement detectors were more sensitive to variations in target trajectory in the horizontal plane than in the vertical plane. Descending contralateral movement detector activity was related to target trajectory and to target size and was most sensitive to small objects converging on a direct collision course from above and to one side. Small objects failed to induce collision avoidance manoeuvres whereas large objects produced reliable collision avoidance responses. Large targets approaching along a converging trajectory produced steering responses that were either away from or toward the side of approach of the object, whereas targets approaching along trajectories that were offset from the locust's mid-longitudinal body axis primarily evoked responses away from the target. We detected no differences in the discharge properties of the descending contralateral movement detector pair that could account for the different collision avoidance behaviours evoked by varying the target size and trajectories. We suggest that descending contralateral movement detector properties are better suited to predator evasion than collision avoidance.     

Consequences of forced convection for the constraints on size and shape in embryos

Previously, predictions of the maximum size of biological objects based on oxygen availability have been made for both zero and infinite water velocity around the object. In reality, however, water velocity is always intermediate between zero and infinity. We predicted maximum size and optimal shape of biological objects, pending the velocity of water around them. We assumed oxygen inside the object to be transported by diffusion and outside the object by diffusion and convection. Fick's first law of diffusion describes the inner transport. For the outer transport, we relied on semi-empirical relations between mass transport and flow conditions (Friedlander's equations). To keep mathematical complexity acceptable, we restricted ourselves to the analysis of a sphere and a cylinder in cross flow. If water velocity is low, a spherical shape is most favourable for gas exchange. If water velocity is high, an elongated and flattened shape is more favourable. A size-dependent intermediate velocity exists where shape does not matter (10(-4) m s(-1)for teleost embryos). Teleost embryos are typically exposed to flow velocities equal to or larger than 10(-4) m s(-1), making an elongated shape more favourable than a spherical one. Although teleost eggs are typically spherical, the oxygen-consuming embryos inside are indeed elongated.     

Defence behaviours of the praying mantis Tenodera aridifolia in response to looming objects

Defence responses to approaching objects were observed in the mantis Tenodera aridifolia. The mantis showed three kinds of behaviour, fixation, evasion and cryptic reaction. The cryptic reaction consisted of rapid retraction of the forelegs under the prothorax or rapid extending of the forelegs in the forward direction. Obstructing the mantis’ sight decreased its response rates, suggesting that the visual stimuli generated by an approaching object elicited the cryptic reaction. The response rate of the cryptic reactions was highest for objects that approached on a direct collision course. Deviation in a horizontal direction from the direct collision course resulted in a reduced response. The response rate of the cryptic reaction increased as the approaching velocity of the object increased, and the rate decreased as the object ceased its approach at a greater distance from the mantis. These results suggest that the function of the observed cryptic reactions is defence against impending collisions. The possible role of the looming-sensitive neuron in the cryptic reaction is also discussed.     

Odour boosts visual object approach in flies

Multisensory integration is synergistic—input from one sensory modality might modulate the behavioural response to another. Work in flies has shown that a small visual object presented in the periphery elicits innate aversive steering responses in flight, likely representing an approaching threat. Object aversion is switched to approach when paired with a plume of food odour. The ‘open-loop’ design of prior work facilitated the observation of changing valence. How does odour influence visual object responses when an animal has naturally active control over its visual experience? In this study, we use closed-loop feedback conditions, in which a fly''s steering effort is coupled to the angular velocity of the visual stimulus, to confirm that flies steer toward or ‘fixate’ a long vertical stripe on the visual midline. They tend either to steer away from or ‘antifixate’ a small object or to disengage active visual control, which manifests as uncontrolled object ‘spinning’ within this experimental paradigm. Adding a plume of apple cider vinegar decreases the probability of both antifixation and spinning, while increasing the probability of frontal fixation for objects of any size, including a normally typically aversive small object.     

Incorporating Prediction in Models for Two-Dimensional Smooth Pursuit

A predictive component can contribute to the command signal for smooth pursuit. This is readily demonstrated by the fact that low frequency sinusoidal target motion can be tracked with zero time delay or even with a small lead. The objective of this study was to characterize the predictive contributions to pursuit tracking more precisely by developing analytical models for predictive smooth pursuit. Subjects tracked a small target moving in two dimensions. In the simplest case, the periodic target motion was composed of the sums of two sinusoidal motions (SS), along both the horizontal and the vertical axes. Motions following the same or similar paths, but having a richer spectral composition, were produced by having the target follow the same path but at a constant speed (CS), and by combining the horizontal SS velocity with the vertical CS velocity and vice versa. Several different quantitative models were evaluated. The predictive contribution to the eye tracking command signal could be modeled as a low-pass filtered target acceleration signal with a time delay. This predictive signal, when combined with retinal image velocity at the same time delay, as in classical models for the initiation of pursuit, gave a good fit to the data. The weighting of the predictive acceleration component was different in different experimental conditions, being largest when target motion was simplest, following the SS velocity profiles.     

Digger wasp against crickets. II. An airborne signal produced by a running predator

Summary Females of the digger wasp Liris niger Fabr. hunt crickets to provide food for their offspring by running with high velocity on the ground (>20–50 cm/s). Crickets are able to detect the running wasps by the air particle movement generated by the predator. We measured signals produced by running wasps using a microphone sensitive to air particle velocity. The wasps generated single air puffs with peak air particle velocities of 1–2 cm/s measured close to the running wasp. We measured frequency spectra of the signals containing only components below 50 Hz, with increasing intensities towards lower frequencies, especially below 10 Hz.We measured the air particle movement generated by artificially moved wasps, crickets or a styrofoam dummy of similar size to investigate the effect of velocity and shape of the moving object upon the composition of the signal. The velocity of movement appeared to be important for the intensity and frequency composition of the air particle movement. The shape of the moved body had an influence on the intensity but only little effect on the frequency spectrum. Measurements with a thermistor anemometer showed that a moving object caused air currents lasting longer than 100 ms after passing or approaching the probe. The air particle movements generated by hunting wasps are entirely sufficient with respect to intensity and frequency range to be registered by the filiform hair sensilla upon the cerci of crickets.     

Electrolocation and jamming avoidance in the mormyrid fishBrienomyrus

Brienomyrus niger fires its electric organ in short pulses of approximately 0.3 ms duration, at a rather irregular rate, which rapidly increases in novel situations. The animal electrolocates objects in its near field by evaluating electroreceptive feedback from its ownelectricorgandischarges (EODs). Electrolocation performance is measured by the critical distance at which an approaching nonconducting object of standard size and velocity is detected (Figs. 1, 3).Electrolocation performance is impaired when foreign pulses of sufficient intensity consistently coincide with the animal's own EODs, whereas noncoinciding pulses, even at intensities 10 times higher than that of the animal's own near field, have no effect. The animal needs at least 4 to 8 uncontaminated successive EODs to electrolocate optimally (Figs. 4, 5).     

Object detection in the fly during simulated translatory flight

Translatory movement of an animal in its environment induces optic flow that contains information about the three-dimensional layout of the surroundings: as a rule, images of objects that are closer to the animal move faster across the retina than those of more distant objects. Such relative motion cues are used by flies to detect objects in front of a structured background. We confronted flying flies, tethered to a torque meter, with front-to-back motion of patterns displayed on two CRT screens, thereby simulating translatory motion of the background as experienced by an animal during straight flight. The torque meter measured the instantaneous turning responses of the fly around its vertical body axis. During short time intervals, object motion was superimposed on background pattern motion. The average turning response towards such an object depends on both object and background velocity in a characteristic way: (1) in order to elicit significant responses object motion has to be faster than background motion; (2) background motion within a certain range of velocities improves object detection. These properties can be interpreted as adaptations to situations as they occur in natural free flight. We confirmed that the measured responses were mediated mainly by a control system specialized for the detection of objects rather than by the compensatory optomotor system responsible for course stabilization. Accepted: 20 March 1997     

Responses to object approach by a wide field visual neurone, the LGMD2 of the locust: Characterization and image cues

The LGMD2 belongs to a group of giant movement-detecting neurones which have fan-shaped arbors in the lobula of the locust optic lobe and respond to movements of objects. One of these neurones, the LGMD1, has been shown to respond directionally to movements of objects in depth, generating vigorous, maintained spike discharges during object approach. Here we compare the responses of the LGMD2 neurone with those of the LGMD1 to simulated movements of objects in depth and examine different image cues which could allow the LGMD2 to distinguish approaching from receding objects. In the absence of stimulation, the LGMD2 has a resting discharge of 10–40 spikes s⁻¹ compared with <1 spike s⁻¹ for the LGMD1. The most powerful excitatory stimulus for the LGMD2 is a dark object approaching the eye. Responses to approaching objects are suppressed by wide field movements of the background. Unlike the LGMD1, the LGMD2 is not excited by the approach of light objects; it specifically responds to movement of edges in the light to dark direction. Both neurones rely on the same monocular image cues to distinguish approaching from receding objects: an increase in the velocity with which edges of images travel over the eye; and an increase in the extent of edges in the image during approach. Accepted: 23 October 1996     

Neural processing of auditory looming in the human brain

Acoustic intensity change, along with interaural, spectral, and reverberation information, is an important cue for the perception of auditory motion. Approaching sound sources produce increases in intensity, and receding sound sources produce corresponding decreases. Human listeners typically overestimate increasing compared to equivalent decreasing sound intensity and underestimate the time to contact of approaching sound sources. These characteristics could provide a selective advantage by increasing the margin of safety for response to looming objects. Here, we used dynamic intensity and functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the neural underpinnings of the perceptual priority for rising intensity. We found that, consistent with activation by horizontal and vertical auditory apparent motion paradigms, rising and falling intensity activated the right temporal plane more than constant intensity. Rising compared to falling intensity activated a distributed neural network subserving space recognition, auditory motion perception, and attention and comprising the superior temporal sulci and the middle temporal gyri, the right temporoparietal junction, the right motor and premotor cortices, the left cerebellar cortex, and a circumscribed region in the midbrain. This anisotropic processing of acoustic intensity change may reflect the salience of rising intensity produced by looming sources in natural environments.     

三江平原典型环型湿地土壤-植被-动物系统的结构及功能研究

环型湿地是三江平原沼泽湿地的主要景观类型之一。由于微地貌的变化 ,形成了相应的高势能区和低势能区。随着势能的变化 ,形成了不同的水热分布带 ,因而也产生了不同的土壤、植物、动物的环型水平结构和垂直结构的特点。在水平结构上 ,环型湿地由中心向外缘 ,地势由低到高 ,水分由多渐少 ,温度由低到高分布。因此 ,也带来了土壤和动植物的变化 ,土壤由泥炭土向沼泽土和白浆土过渡 ;植物由沉水的小狸藻向浮水的漂筏苔草、挺水的大穗苔草 睡菜群丛、毛果苔草 -狭叶甜茅群丛、小叶章 -沼柳 -越菊柳以及外缘分布的蒙古栎 白桦岛状林发展。动物的水平结构也就有相应的变化。环型湿地每个水平分布带又都具有各自不同的垂直结构。环型湿地的特殊结构 ,使其有着巨大的储水功能和调节温度的功能。即使在高温干旱的季节 ,由于湿地表面的须根层有隔离的空间 ,阻止了温度的传导 ,减少了下层水的蒸发 ,在下层的泥炭中仍有大量的水分保持。同时 ,这里也是一个太阳能储存库和遗传基因库。深入了解环型湿地的结构与功能 ,对研究湿地生态系统的功能及其保护湿地 ,实现湿地资源的可持续利用都具有重要的意义     

A real-world size organization of object responses in occipitotemporal cortex

While there are selective regions of occipitotemporal cortex that respond to faces, letters, and bodies, the large-scale neural organization of most object categories remains unknown. Here, we find that object representations can be differentiated along the ventral temporal cortex by their real-world size. In a functional neuroimaging experiment, observers were shown pictures of big and small real-world objects (e.g., table, bathtub; paperclip, cup), presented at the same retinal size. We observed a consistent medial-to-lateral organization of big and small object preferences in the ventral temporal cortex, mirrored along the lateral surface. Regions in the lateral-occipital, inferotemporal, and parahippocampal cortices showed strong peaks of differential real-world size selectivity and maintained these preferences over changes in retinal size and in mental imagery. These data demonstrate that the real-world size of objects can provide insight into the spatial topography of object representation.     

The membranous labyrinth and its innervation inChaetodon trifasciatus (Pisces,Teleostei, Chaetodontidae)

Synopsis In the butterflyfishChaetodon trifasciatus, the labyrinth is characterized by its elevated form and especially the size of the vertical canals, the almost circular form of the horizontal canal and its posterior opening not directly in the utriculus but in the common pillar of the two vertical canals. There is an almost complete separation between utriculus and sacculus which are only linked by a virtual pore. The lagena, which is medially situated to the posterior part of the sacculus, is separated from it by an incomplete vertical wall. There are two maculae neglectae, the anterior macula being situated in the pore separating utriculus from sacculus and filling this pore, the posterior in a gutter of the floor of the utriculus. A long and narrow endolymphatic canal, originating from the sacculus close to the communication with the utriculus, follows the common pillar of the two vertical canals and widens into an endolymphatic sac at the top of the membranous labyrinth. The innervation of the labyrinth is made by the acoustic ganglion, which is connected to the brain by two roots and elongated into three parts: the anterior part innervates the anterior and horizontal cristae and the utricular and saccular maculae; the middle part innervates the macula sacculae and the macula neglecta 1; the posterior part innervates the macula neglecta II, the macula lagenae and the posterior crista. The important size of the vertical canals and the almost circular form of the horizontal canal may reflect very precise locomotory aptitudes.     

Object localization with whiskers

Rats use their large facial hairs (whiskers) to detect, localize and identify objects in their proximal three-dimensional (3D) space. Here, we focus on recent evidence of how object location is encoded in the neural sensory pathways of the rat whisker system. Behavioral and neuronal observations have recently converged to the point where object location in 3D appears to be encoded by an efficient orthogonal scheme supported by primary sensory-afferents: each primary-afferent can signal object location by a spatial (labeled-line) code for the vertical axis (along whisker arcs), a temporal code for the horizontal axis (along whisker rows), and an intensity code for the radial axis (from the face out). Neuronal evidence shows that (i) the identities of activated sensory neurons convey information about the vertical coordinate of an object, (ii) the timing of their firing, in relation to other reference signals, conveys information about the horizontal object coordinate, and (iii) the intensity of firing conveys information about the radial object coordinate. Such a triple-coding scheme allows for efficient multiplexing of 3D object location information in the activity of single neurons. Also, this scheme provides redundancy since the same information may be represented in the activity of many neurons. These features of orthogonal coding increase accuracy and reliability. We propose that the multiplexed information is conveyed in parallel to different readout circuits, each decoding a specific spatial variable. Such decoding reduces ambiguity, and simplifies the required decoding algorithms, since different readout circuits can be optimized for a particular variable.     

Net dissolved inorganic nitrogen production in hyporheic mesocosms with contrasting sediment size distributions

The interstitial spaces within streambeds are recognized as an important location of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) transformations in streams. However, it remains uncertain how physical characteristics of streambeds affect the magnitude and net outcome of subsurface nitrogen transformations. We tested whether the size distribution of streambed sediments, in isolation from the influence of streambed topography and groundwater upwelling, could affect net DIN uptake or production along interstitial flow paths. Mesocosms constructed from PVC pipe (15 cm diameter × 1 m long) were filled with either coarse gravel/cobble or gravel/cobble mixed with finer sediments (5 mesocosms per sediment treatment). Mesocosms were submerged in a stream and oriented, so that surface water flowed through the sediments. After 2 months incubation, we measured DIN in interstitial water at 20 cm intervals and dissolved oxygen at 10 cm intervals along mesocosm flow paths. In both sediment types, DIN concentrations increased longitudinally along mesocosm flow paths in the direction of interstitial flow, indicating net DIN production. Although DIN increased to higher concentrations in mesocosms with fine sediments, greater exchange flow through coarse sediments resulted in similar rates of net DIN production and delivery to surface water. Production of DIN in both sediment types was concentrated within the first 10 cm of interstitial flow paths, with no significant production further along the flow paths. Coarse sediments had higher rates of oxygen consumption per unit sediment volume than the coarse–fine sediment mix, suggesting interstitial water velocity may be an important factor affecting hyporheic microbial metabolism.     

长白山9种槭树的翅果扩散及种子萌发研究

翅果的风媒传播是槭属植物的主要扩散方式之一,且与种子萌发有着密切关联,但具体机理一直还并不明确。以分布于长白山的9种槭树为对象,探讨翅果的形态特征,测定它们在空气中的垂直沉降速度、不同风速下的水平扩散距离以及在扩散距离上的种子萌发率,进而比较并分析翅果的形态性状与沉降速度、水平扩散距离的相关性以及萌发率在不同扩散距离上的差异性。结果表明：(1) 9种槭树的翅果长、宽和面积与沉降速度、水平扩散距离均呈负相关;尽管如此,翅果形态并不是风传播物种的最佳分类指标,而翅载力能较好地反应物种的风传播能力;(2)翅果垂直沉降速度和水平扩散距离间存在显著负相关,表明沉降速度越小,翅果在空气中停留的时间越长,水平方向上扩散距离越远,且强风有助于提高翅果的扩散能力;(3)沉降速度最慢的花楷槭在不同风速下的水平扩散距离均最远,而沉降速度最快的拧筋槭水平扩散距离最短;(4)种子萌发率随扩散距离的增加呈下降趋势。上述结果不仅为深入理解翅果的风力传播机制以及种子萌发对水平扩散距离的响应机制提供科学依据,还可为种群实生更新方面的理论研究提供参考。     

Visual edge orientation shapes free-flight behavior in Drosophila

Insects rely on visual cues to estimate and control their distance to approaching objects and their flight speed. Here we show that in free-flight, the motion cues generated by high-contrast vertical edges are crucial for these estimates. Within a visual environment dominated by high-contrast horizontal edges, flies fly unusually fast and barely avoid colliding with the walls of the enclosure. The disruption of flight behavior by horizontal edges provides insight into the structure of visually-mediated control algorithms.     

Relation between object properties and EMG during reaching to grasp

In order to stably grasp an object with an artificial hand, a priori knowledge of the object’s properties is a major advantage, especially to ensure subsequent manipulation of the object held by the hand. This is also true for hand prostheses: pre-shaping of the hand while approaching the object, similar to able-bodied, allows the wearer for a much faster and more intuitive way of handling and grasping an object. For hand prostheses, it would be advantageous to obtain this information about object properties from a surface electromyography (sEMG) signal, which is already present and used to control the active prosthetic hand.We describe experiments in which human subjects grasp different objects at different positions while their muscular activity is recorded through eight sEMG electrodes placed on the forearm. Results show that sEMG data, gathered before the hand is in contact with the object, can be used to obtain relevant information on object properties such as size and weight.     

Tactile localisation: the function of active antennal movements in the crayfishCherax destructor

Video recordings and single frame analysis were used to study the function of the second antennae of crayfish (Cherax destructor) as a sensory system in freely behaving animals. Walking crayfish move their antennae back and forth through horizontal angles of 100 degrees and more, relative to the body long axis. At rest, animals tend to hold their antennae at angular positions between 20 and 50 degrees. Movements of the two antennae are largely independent of each other. Before and during a turn of the body the ipsilateral antenna is moved into the direction of the turn. Solid objects are explored by repeatedly moving the antennae towards and across them. Both seeing and blinded crayfish can locate stationary objects following antennal contact. On antennal contact with a small novel object, a moving animal withdraws its antenna and attacks the object. When the antenna of a blinded crayfish is lightly touched with a brush the animal turns and attacks the point of stimulation. The direction taken and the distance covered during an attack can be correlated with: the angle at which the antenna is held at the moment of contact and the distance along the antennal flagellum at which the stimulus is applied. From behavioural evidence we conclude that crayfish use information about the angular position of their antennae and about the position of stimulated mechanoreceptors along the antennal flagellum to locate objects in their environment. We suggest ways in which an active tactile system-like the crayfish's antennae--could supply animals with information about the three-dimensional layout of their environment.