Biodiversity as a solution to mitigate climate change impacts on the functioning of forest ecosystems

Forest ecosystems are critical to mitigating greenhouse gas emissions through carbon sequestration. However, climate change has affected forest ecosystem functioning in both negative and positive ways, and has led to shifts in species/functional diversity and losses in plant species diversity which may impair the positive effects of diversity on ecosystem functioning. Biodiversity may mitigate climate change impacts on (I) biodiversity itself, as more‐diverse systems could be more resilient to climate change impacts, and (II) ecosystem functioning through the positive relationship between diversity and ecosystem functioning. By surveying the literature, we examined how climate change has affected forest ecosystem functioning and plant diversity. Based on the biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning (B→EF), we specifically address the potential for biodiversity to mitigate climate change impacts on forest ecosystem functioning. For this purpose, we formulate a concept whereby biodiversity may reduce the negative impacts or enhance the positive impacts of climate change on ecosystem functioning. Further B→EF studies on climate change in natural forests are encouraged to elucidate how biodiversity might influence ecosystem functioning. This may be achieved through the detailed scrutiny of large spatial/long temporal scale data sets, such as long‐term forest inventories. Forest management strategies based on B→EF have strong potential for augmenting the effectiveness of the roles of forests in the mitigation of climate change impacts on ecosystem functioning.     

森林管理的生态效应研究进展

森林管理是实现森林生产效益最大化的主要措施,是增加碳吸收以减缓气候变暖的关键手段,是调节区域水文循环的有效途径,是保护地以外实现生物多样性保护目标的重要补充。然而,追求单一生产功能的传统森林管理弱化了其他生态功能,并对森林景观结构和生物多样性产生负面影响。全球80%以上森林由于人类活动呈现不同程度退化进而影响人类福祉,森林管理需要优化以追求多维生态功能的协同共赢。当前,对于森林管理的生态效应仍有较多争论或未形成明确认识,可持续森林管理能否取得额外的气候效益仍有待确认,森林管理如何影响不同区域的水文生态功能仍未形成明确认识,不同类型森林管理或多或少、或正面或负面影响栖息地及不同种类生物多样性的强度和方向不明确。因此,森林管理的生态效应是一个值得深入探索的问题,未来需要深入量化不同管理措施对气候变化缓解、水文循环调节、生物多样性保护乃至提供其他生态功能的作用,将维持或提升生态功能及生物多样性作为可持续森林管理的一个重要目标,通过优化森林管理策略开展森林提质增效以获得最大收益。     

A general ecophysiological framework for modelling the impact of pests and pathogens on forest ecosystems.

Forest insects and pathogens (FIPs) have enormous impacts on community dynamics, carbon storage and ecosystem services, however, ecosystem modelling of FIPs is limited due to their variability in severity and extent. We present a general framework for modelling FIP disturbances through their impacts on tree ecophysiology. Five pathways are identified as the basis for functional groupings: increases in leaf, stem and root turnover, and reductions in phloem and xylem transport. A simple ecophysiological model was used to explore the sensitivity of forest growth, mortality and ecosystem fluxes to varying outbreak severity. Across all pathways, low infection was associated with growth reduction but limited mortality. Moderate infection led to individual tree mortality, whereas high levels led to stand‐level die‐offs delayed over multiple years. Delayed mortality is consistent with observations and critical for capturing biophysical, biogeochemical and successional responses. This framework enables novel predictions under present and future global change scenarios.     

Ecology of forest insect invasions

Forests in virtually all regions of the world are being affected by invasions of non-native insects. We conducted an in-depth review of the traits of successful invasive forest insects and the ecological processes involved in insect invasions across the universal invasion phases (transport and arrival, establishment, spread and impacts). Most forest insect invasions are accidental consequences of international trade. The dominant invasion ‘pathways’ are live plant imports, shipment of solid wood packaging material, “hitchhiking” on inanimate objects, and intentional introductions of biological control agents. Invading insects exhibit a variety of life histories and include herbivores, detritivores, predators and parasitoids. Herbivores are considered the most damaging and include wood-borers, sap-feeders, foliage-feeders and seed eaters. Most non-native herbivorous forest insects apparently cause little noticeable damage but some species have profoundly altered the composition and ecological functioning of forests. In some cases, non-native herbivorous insects have virtually eliminated their hosts, resulting in major changes in forest composition and ecosystem processes. Invasive predators (e.g., wasps and ants) can have major effects on forest communities. Some parasitoids have caused the decline of native hosts. Key ecological factors during the successive invasion phases are illustrated. Escape from natural enemies explains some of the extreme impacts of forest herbivores but in other cases, severe impacts result from a lack of host defenses due to a lack of evolutionary exposure. Many aspects of forest insect invasions remain poorly understood including indirect impacts via apparent competition and facilitation of other invaders, which are often cryptic and not well studied.     

农田景观格局对害虫天敌生态控害功能的调控作用

如何提升农田景观的生态服务功能是当前景观生态学和害虫防治学的前沿研究热点.基于区域农田景观格局可显著调节植物-植食性昆虫-天敌之间相互关系的理论基础,本文系统概括总结了农田景观格局及其变化对农田重要天敌多样性与生态控害功能的影响.从不同天敌类群的角度,分析了农田景观格局对捕食性天敌、寄生性天敌、有益微生物及其生态控害功能的调控作用.同时,对优化农田景观作物布局、采取合理的植被生境管理策略进行了展望.本文可为应用植被生境管理提升农田景观中天敌的生态系统服务功能提供参考,进一步促进区域生态农业响应"化学农药减量施用"的战略目标提供理论支撑.     

以昆虫作为指示生物评估森林健康的生物学与生态学基础

昆虫是森林生物多样性的重要组成部分,在森林生态系统主体群落中,昆虫与植物密切关联.森林害虫胁迫及昆虫多样性变动,对于评估森林生态系统健康状况具有重要价值.昆虫多样性可用于对森林生态系统健康的快速评估,如基于昆虫指示生物评价森林生态系统的毒害水平、物种丰富度、多样性水平、靶标昆虫的地位和特有种水平等.针对影响森林环境健康的重要干扰因子,本文阐述了应用昆虫作为指示性生物监测与评估森林健康状况的生物与生态学依据,讨论了昆虫种群,特别是珍稀物种种群在生境破碎干扰下的种群波动,以及大气污染、干旱和二氧化碳浓度升高等对昆虫种群密度与分布的影响等.同时,分析了昆虫作为指示性生物监测与评估森林环境健康所存在的问题.     

The implications of improved communications for participatory forest management in Tanzania

Following the 1998 National Forest Policy and Forest Act of 2002, participatory forest management (PFM) is being introduced in Tanzania. PFM has two key objectives: to reduce forest degradation thereby increasing ecosystem services, and to improve the livelihoods of local villagers. A unique data set collected in 2006 suggests that significant challenges remain with respect to communicating the new forest policies if the objectives of PFM are to be achieved. First, villagers as a group are much less well informed than other stakeholders, and their knowledge is often inaccurate. Second, women are less likely than men to have heard of the changes. Third, how PFM will contribute to poverty reduction (a key objective of PFM) is not always clear. Fourth, environmental degradation may not be reduced as much as anticipated – without alternatives sources, villagers often continue to cut trees for charcoal and firewood in the protected forests. Finally, several mismatches in perceptions are identified that could lead to difficulties in implementing PFM.     

Rehabilitating degraded forests in Central Europe into self–sustaining forest ecosystems

There is a need for a consistent forest restoration strategy for the `Black Triangle', Central Europe. In the past 50 years, forests in this area have been heavily affected by industrial pollution. Recently, the amount of pollutants has decreased. This means that effective forest restoration programmes can be started. Forest decline must be seen as an ecological disturbance which cannot be solved by applying technical measures only. An ecosystem approach to forest restoration must be introduced into restoration policy and management. Basic principles and working methods of such an approach are briefly described and proposals are made for forest restoration policy, management and research in the area.     

池州森林生态系统服务价值评估与分析

池州市是国家首个生态经济示范区,《中国21世纪议程》试点地之一,生态安徽建设试点市.基于LY/T1721-2008《森林生态系统生态服务价值评估规范》,采用实证研究、调查研究、文献研究等方法,估算了池州市森林生态系统生态服务价值.结果表明:2009年,池州市森林生态系统生态服务价值为443.30亿元,林果等实物产品价值...     

A review of the ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations,using forests as a reference system

Oil palm plantations have expanded rapidly in recent decades. This large‐scale land‐use change has had great ecological, economic, and social impacts on both the areas converted to oil palm and their surroundings. However, research on the impacts of oil palm cultivation is scattered and patchy, and no clear overview exists. We address this gap through a systematic and comprehensive literature review of all ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations, including several (genetic, medicinal and ornamental resources, information functions) not included in previous systematic reviews. We compare ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations to those in forests, as the conversion of forest to oil palm is prevalent in the tropics. We find that oil palm plantations generally have reduced ecosystem functioning compared to forests: 11 out of 14 ecosystem functions show a net decrease in level of function. Some functions show decreases with potentially irreversible global impacts (e.g. reductions in gas and climate regulation, habitat and nursery functions, genetic resources, medicinal resources, and information functions). The most serious impacts occur when forest is cleared to establish new plantations, and immediately afterwards, especially on peat soils. To variable degrees, specific plantation management measures can prevent or reduce losses of some ecosystem functions (e.g. avoid illegal land clearing via fire, avoid draining of peat, use of integrated pest management, use of cover crops, mulch, and compost) and we highlight synergistic mitigation measures that can improve multiple ecosystem functions simultaneously. The only ecosystem function which increases in oil palm plantations is, unsurprisingly, the production of marketable goods. Our review highlights numerous research gaps. In particular, there are significant gaps with respect to socio‐cultural information functions. Further, there is a need for more empirical data on the importance of spatial and temporal scales, such as differences among plantations in different environments, of different sizes, and of different ages, as our review has identified examples where ecosystem functions vary spatially and temporally. Finally, more research is needed on developing management practices that can offset the losses of ecosystem functions. Our findings should stimulate research to address the identified gaps, and provide a foundation for more systematic research and discussion on ways to minimize the negative impacts and maximize the positive impacts of oil palm cultivation.     

A structured decision making analysis to increase a Red-cockaded Woodpecker population and balance stakeholder objectives for a National Forest

Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) savanna is a biodiverse ecosystem native to the southeastern United States. Due to fire suppression and timber harvest, longleaf pine has declined to 3% of its original range. The extant forest provides habitat for many threatened and endangered species, including the endangered Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis; RCW), a cavity-nesting bird that co-evolved with fire-maintained forest, resulting in savanna-like old-growth forest as the bird’s preferred habitat. Our study site, the Oakmulgee Ranger District of the Talladega National Forest, harbors the largest RCW population in Alabama and is managed with an emphasis on RCW conservation. The United States Forest Service (USFS) also manages the Oakmulgee for uses such as wildlife conservation, recreation, and timber harvest. Despite efforts to restore RCW habitat and install artificial cavities in the Oakmulgee, the number of RCW groups has not exceeded 123, although the Recovery Plan objective is 394 groups. Our project was motivated by the USFS expressing interest in determining why the RCW population has not exceeded 123 groups. We proposed using structured decision making (SDM) with the USFS and other stakeholders to address this problem. Our goals were to explicitly define management objectives, build a Bayesian belief network with a model of how decision alternatives are believed to affect management objectives, and use a sensitivity analysis to determine the part of the model to which RCW population growth was most sensitive. Therefore, results from the analysis were expected to give insights into 1) ecological factors limiting RCW population growth, 2) how management can overcome these limits, plus 3) the relative expected ability of different decision alternatives to satisfy multiple objectives in addition to increasing RCW group number. We held four SDM workshops with representatives from the USFS, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, the Longleaf Alliance, the Birmingham Audubon Society, and local residents. Stakeholder objectives consisted of maximizing the following: RCW group number, forest health, recreational enjoyment, community economic health, and aesthetics. Cavity insert installation had the greatest probability of increasing the number of RCW groups. The number of RCW groups was most affected by cavity availability, adult survival, reproductive output, food availability, and herbaceous understory. Prescribed burning was most likely to meet the combination of stakeholder objectives, followed by midstory removal. Our findings suggest that cavity installation efforts may need to be increased in the Oakmulgee to increase RCW group number. Also it could be beneficial to investigate how RCWs select cavity tree locations with the goal of increasing the chance that RCWs use artificial cavities to form new groups. The Bayesian belief network provided insights into factors limiting RCW population growth and how management can overcome these limits. The Bayesian belief network also can be used to prioritize management methods in the Oakmulgee given stakeholder objectives and time constraints.     

Satellite remote sensing for ecological analysis of forested landscape

The spatial characterisation and vertical analysis are together considered important to evaluate structure of forested landscapes. In recent years, increased human impacts have resulted in changes in landscape and structure of the forest ecosystem. The present study is aimed to analyse impacts of disturbance on landscape structure using satellite remote sensing and a geographic information system (GIS) in Madhav National Park of India. The Landsat TM data have been used to identify vegetation types. The patch characteristics of the vegetation like size, shape, porosity and patch density have been studied. The physical and humanmade features have divided the national park in three zones. These zones are also utilised as management zones by the State Forest Department. The study indicates that the central zone is distinctly different from the south and north zones. The patch size and porosity have been found to be most important parameters to discriminate differences in the ecological status of three different zones of the park. The patchiness and shape provide supportive information and characterise the patches of the zones. The structural analysis of the vegetation revealed effect on species diversity and biomass distribution in the different disturbance regimes.     

Urban trees: bridge-heads for forest pest invasions and sentinels for early detection

Urban trees have been increasingly appreciated for the many benefits they provide. As concentrated hubs of human-mediated movement, the urban landscape is, however, often the first point of contact for exotic pests including insects and plant pathogens. Consequently, urban trees can be important for accidentally introduced forest pests to become established and potentially invasive. Reductions in biodiversity and the potential for stressful conditions arising from anthropogenic disturbances can predispose these trees to pest attack, further increasing the likelihood of exotic forest pests becoming established and increasing in density. Once established in urban environments, dispersal of introduced pests can proceed to natural forest landscapes or planted forests. In addition to permanent long-term damage to natural ecosystems, the consequences of these invasions include costly attempts at eradication and post establishment management strategies. We discuss a range of ecological, economic and social impacts arising from these incursions and the importance of global biosecurity is highlighted as a crucially important barrier to pest invasions. Finally, we suggest that urban trees may be viewed as ‘sentinel plantings’. In particular, botanical gardens and arboreta frequently house large collections of exotic plantings, providing a unique opportunity to help predict and prevent the invasion of new pests, and where introduced pests with the capacity to cause serious impacts in forest environments could potentially be detected during the initial stages of establishment. Such early detection offers the only realistic prospect of eradication, thereby reducing damaging ecological impacts and long term management costs.     

面向生态系统服务的森林生态系统经营:现状、挑战与展望

森林生态系统是地球陆地生态系统的主体,它具有很高的生物生产力和生物量以及丰富的生物多样性,对全球生态系统和人类经济社会发展起着至关重要和无可替代的作用。伴随着人口的不断增长和经济社会的迅猛发展,对森林资源和森林生态系统服务的需求不断高涨,而且人类对森林资源价值的认识也发生了很大程度的改变。推进森林资源可持续经营,增加森林总量、提高森林质量、增强生态功能,已成为中国林业可持续发展乃至推进中国生态文明建设和建设美丽中国的战略任务。本文全面综述了森林生态系统经营发展历程,分析了森林生态系统经营的现状和存在问题,在此基础上,提出整合基于生态系统管理与满足现代人类福祉对森林多重需求的新的森林生态系统经营理念,面向生态系统服务的森林生态系统经营理念是未来的发展趋势。森林经营发展战略表现为:1)从单纯的森林面积数量扩张,转变到提高单位面积的森林生产力和森林质量;2)从单一追求木材生产逐步转变为多目标经营,将森林林产品单一的经营目标转变为广泛的生态、经济和社会等多目标经营;3)森林经营重点从林分水平转变为森林景观的经营,强调森林景观的时空异质性和动态变化,权衡和协同多种生态系统的服务功能,倡导森林景观的多样性和连通性,提高森林与其它土地利用模式镶嵌构成的复合景观的可持续性和稳定性,增强森林生态系统对气候变化影响的适应能力;4)森林生态系统经营将从依赖传统经验的主观决策转变为信息化、数字化和智能化的决策,发展森林生态系统经营决策支持系统和森林景观恢复与空间经营规划系统。     

The Conservation of Saproxylic Insects in Tropical Forests: A Research Agenda

Invariably, insects are overlooked when tropical forest management issues are discussed, because there are so many species, they are taxonomically intractable and so poorly known. Often people take the view that if you look after the vegetation and vertebrates, the insects will look after themselves. This may be true for some functional groups, but for saproxylic insects, this seems unlikely. Their study deserves high priority, since they are dependent on the very resource – wood – whose removal from the ecosystem is the usual object of forest management. Given the current international effort to develop 'criteria and indicators' to monitor sustainable forest management for biodiversity values, there is a window of opportunity for sound ecological research on saproxylic insects to influence the formulation of forest policy such that their needs can be taken into account. There is already a large body of knowledge on temperate and boreal region saproxylic insects, and on the effects that logging has on them, but knowledge of the tropical forest situation lags far behind. This paper proposes a research agenda to enable the needs of saproxylic insects to be taken into account in natural forest management in the tropics. Basic questions, such as whether logging has so far had an impact on tropical saproxylic insects, and whether there are workable sampling techniques to investigate this, still remain to be addressed and deserve high priority. The links between the responses of saproxylic insects and more 'charismatic' study species need to be investigated. We also need to know whether there is a correlation between the intensity of logging and the response of saproxylic insects, and, critically, whether we would be justified in measuring some surrogate aspects of forest structure (as potential habitat for saproxylic insects) rather than the saproxylic insects themselves, and modelling this to determine likely impacts of different management regimes. We consider such an ambitious research agenda as justified given the scale of impact that forest use and management is likely to have on tropical forest insects in the future.     

面向管理目标的国家公园生态监测指标体系构建与应用

国家公园具有生态系统保护、自然资源可持续利用等管理目标,这些管理目标的实现需要大量监测数据和信息的支持。对国家公园开展生态监测有助于了解国家公园内生态系统的动态变化并揭示管理活动的影响,从而为管理决策的规划和实施提供有用信息。为推动我国国家公园生态监测体系的建立,提出了面向管理目标的国家公园生态监测指标构建方法。该方法由确定国家公园生态监测目标、识别国家公园管理目标、识别国家公园关键生态过程、确定需要监测的生态过程并制定初始监测指标清单、确定最终监测指标清单5个部分组成。该方法在三江源国家公园进行了应用。三江源国家公园的管理目标包括生态系统保育、维持江河径流量持续稳定等13项,在区域、景观、生态系统和种群尺度上共识别出16个关键生态过程。通过匹配三江源国家公园的关键生态过程与管理目标,构建了一个由两级共93个指标组成的三江源国家公园生态监测指标体系,为三江源国家公园生态监测体系的构建奠定了基础。     

Ecological consequences of toxin use for mammalian pest control in New Zealand—An overview

Toxins, especially sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) and brodifacoum, are widely used throughout New Zealand for control of introduced mammals that are considered pests. This level of toxin use (not necessarily with these toxins) is unlikely to decline for at least 5-10 years. Ecological consequences derive both from mammal population reduction or eradication, and from using toxins as the control method. Scientists have not examined the net ecological outcomes of these consequences at the community level due to their daunting complexity, although managers usually manipulate whole communities and key conservation legislation demands that they do so. A food web could be a useful conceptual framework to generate hypotheses about toxin movement through communities, and to explore net outcomes of pest control at the community level. It could also sharpen objectives for ecosystem restoration on the New Zealand mainland, and help to find common ground between different participants in ecosystem management. We interpret present evidence to suggest that the ecological costs of using toxins are much less than the damage costs if they are not used, due to the magnitude of known impacts of introduced pest mammals. This suggestion deserves exploration; it may not be true when persistent toxins such as brodifacoum are used rePeatedly. Research on toxin use should continue on its present broad front, but we suggest that priorities are to measure net ecological outcomes at the community level, to reduce toxin use, and to improve pest control strategies and techniques in the maintenance phase of control operations. Finally, we suggest that an annual ecosystem management conference in New Zealand, which explicitly brings together managers, policymakers, landowners, and scientists from the many disciplines now relevant to the complex field of pest mammal control, would enhance progress and co-operation.     

A landscape‐based approach for assessing spatiotemporal impacts of forest biomass‐based electricity generation on the age structure of surrounding forest plantations in the Southern United States

Forest plantations support several ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation. Establishment of a forest biomass‐based industry could significantly change the age structure of forest plantations located in its vicinity and thus, could lead to a possible loss of biodiversity. Therefore, this study assesses spatiotemporal impacts of a forest biomass‐based power plant on the age structure of surrounding forest plantations at landscape level. A cellular automata approach was adopted and interactions between economic objectives of forest landowners and a power plant owner punctuated by forest growth and management characteristics were considered. These spatiotemporal impacts were jointly assessed for four separate scenarios and four different power plant capacities using appropriate landscape‐level indices. Slash pine (Pinus elliotti L.) was selected as a representative species. Results indicate that the age structure of surrounding forest plantations continuously fluctuates with respect to each year of power plant operation. However, the age structure, once disturbed, never becomes comparable to the original age structure. We also found that the mature plantations were harvested during early years of power plant operation and were never observed again for the remaining years of power plant operation. This was particularly true for high capacity power plants. Similarly, high value of selected spatial index at the end of power plant life for a high capacity power plant relative to the original low value of the same index indicates aggregation of remaining plantation ages at landscape level. Establishment of low capacity forest biomass‐based power plants and adoption of an integrated regional level planning approach could help in maintaining original age structure characteristics of surrounding forest plantations to a large extent. This might help in sustaining various ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation obtained from forest plantations in a long run.     

基于VAR模型的森林植被碳储量影响因素分析——以陕西省为例

森林作为陆地生态系统最大的碳库,对现在及未来的气候变化、碳平衡都具有重要影响。而对影响森林植被碳库的自然和非自然因素进行研究更是对增强森林的碳汇作用,继而改善生态环境状况意义重大。现有的森林动态模型虽然可以很好的模拟碳储量各影响因子之间的联系,但研究往往集中于小尺度从单一影响因素着手,且由于确定模型输入变量和参数的复杂性,使得这些模型在区域甚至更大尺度上的应用存在着一些困难。因此,运用VAR模型,以陕西省为例,构建森林植被碳储量与病虫害发生面积、木材产量、森林火灾面积、森林抚育面积、人工更新造林面积、降水和温度之间的动态关系,来验证该模型在省级尺度条件下的区域森林植被碳储量影响因素分析中的可行性。结果表明:各变量在5%的显著性水平下呈一阶单整序列并具有长期稳定的均衡关系,VAR模型也通过了平稳性检验满足运行的前提条件。通过脉冲响应和方差分解分析可知,森林病虫害、木材产量对陕西省森林植被碳储量呈现出很明显的负作用,并且贡献度很高,分别为5.61%和4.52%;森林抚育、人工更新造林对碳储量的影响存在一定的滞后期;火灾、温度和降水的冲击给碳储量带来的影响均不明显。模型较好的模拟了各影响因素对陕西省碳储量的影响,且具有一定的现实意义,因此,该模型可应用于省级尺度条件下的区域森林植被碳储量影响因素分析。     

Influence of global warming on forest coleopteran communities with special reference to ambrosia and bark beetles

Forest insect pests are one of the major disturbance factors in forest ecosystems and their outbreaks are expected to be more severe under the influence of global warming. Coleopterans are dominant among forest insects and their ecological functions include general detritivores, dead wood feeders, fungivores, herbivores, live wood feeders and predators. Ambrosia and bark beetles contribute to ecological succession of forests and, therefore, ecological functions of forests can be changed in response to their outbreaks. Mountain pine beetle (MPB) outbreaks are the most dramatic example of changes in the ecological functions of forest due to the outbreak of a forest insect pest altered by global warming. Composition of coleopteran species varies with latitude. However, composition of functional groups is consistent with latitude which indicates that resources available to beetles are consistent. In coleopteran communities, ambrosia and bark beetles can become dominant due to increases of dead or stressed trees due to the warming climate. This can also induce changes in the ecological functions of coleopterans, i.e. selective force to displace trees that have lower ecological fitness due to temperature increase. Therefore, recent increases in the density ambrosia and bark beetles offer a chance to study ecological processes in forests under the influence of global warming.