Effects of larval mosquitoes (Aedes triseriatus) and stemflow on microbial community dynamics in container habitats.

The dynamics of the microbial food sources for Aedes triseriatus larvae in microcosms were found to be strongly influenced by larval presence. The total abundance of bacteria in water samples generally increased in response to larvae, including populations of cultivable, facultatively anaerobic bacteria. Additionally, a portion of the community shifted from Pseudomonaceae to Enterobacteriaceae. Bacterial abundance on leaf material was significantly reduced in the presence of actively feeding larvae. Principle-component analysis of whole community fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profiles showed that larvae changed the microbial community structure in both the water column and the leaf material. Cyclopropyl FAMEs, typically associated with bacteria, were reduced in microcosms containing larvae; however, other bacterial fatty acids showed no consistent response. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids characteristic of microeukaryotes (protozoans and meiofauna) declined in abundance when larvae were present, indicating that larval feeding reduced the densities of these microorganisms. However, presumed fungal lipid markers either increased or were unchanged in response to larvae. Larval presence also affected microbial nitrogen metabolism through modification of the physiochemical conditions or by grazing on populations of bacteria involved in nitrification-denitrification. Stemflow primarily influenced inorganic ion and organic compound concentrations in the microcosms and had less-pronounced effects on microbial community parameters than did larval presence. Stemflow treatments diluted concentrations of all inorganic ions (chloride, sulfate, and ammonium) and organic compounds (total dissolved organic carbon, soluble carbohydrates, and total protein) measured, with the exceptions of nitrite and nitrate. Stemflow addition did not measurably affect larval biomass in the microcosms but did enhance development rates and early emergence patterns of adults.     

Effect of Leaf Type and Pesticide Exposure on Abundance of Bacterial Taxa in Mosquito Larval Habitats

Lentic freshwater systems including those inhabited by aquatic stages of mosquitoes derive most of their carbon inputs from terrestrial organic matter mainly leaf litter. The leaf litter is colonized by microbial communities that provide the resource base for mosquito larvae. While the microbial biomass associated with different leaf species in container aquatic habitats is well documented, the taxonomic composition of these microbes and their response to common environmental stressors is poorly understood. We used indoor aquatic microcosms to determine the abundances of major taxonomic groups of bacteria in leaf litters from seven plant species and their responses to low concentrations of four pesticides with different modes of action on the target organisms; permethrin, malathion, atrazine and glyphosate. We tested the hypotheses that leaf species support different quantities of major taxonomic groups of bacteria and that exposure to pesticides at environmentally relevant concentrations alters bacterial abundance and community structure in mosquito larval habitats. We found support for both hypotheses suggesting that leaf litter identity and chemical contamination may alter the quality and quantity of mosquito food base (microbial communities) in larval habitats. The effect of pesticides on microbial communities varied significantly among leaf types, suggesting that the impact of pesticides on natural microbial communities may be highly complex and difficult to predict. Collectively, these findings demonstrate the potential for detritus composition within mosquito larval habitats and exposure to pesticides to influence the quality of mosquito larval habitats.     

Leaf-Associated Bacterial and Fungal Taxa Shifts in Response to Larvae of the Tree Hole Mosquito, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ochlerotatus triseriatus</Emphasis>

Larvae of the eastern tree hole mosquito, Ochlerotatus triseriatus (Say), and related container-breeding species are known to feed upon substrate-associated microorganisms. Although the importance of these microbial resources to larval growth has been established, almost nothing is known about the taxonomic composition and dynamics of these critical microbial food sources. We examined bacterial and fungal community compositional changes on oak leaves tethered in natural tree hole habitats of O. triseriatus. We eliminated larvae experimentally in a subset of the tree holes and examined 16S rDNA gene sequences for bacteria and ergosterol concentrations and 18S rRNA gene sequences for fungi collected from leaf material subsamples. Leaf ergosterol content varied significantly with time, but not treatment. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to compare microbial taxonomic patterns found in leaves incubated with or without larvae present, and we found that larval presence affected both bacterial and fungal groups, either from loosely attached or strongly adherent categories. Bacterial communities generally grouped more tightly when larvae were present, and class level taxa proportions changed when larvae were present, suggesting selection by larval feeding or activities for particular taxa such as members of the Bacteroidetes, Alphaproteobacteria, and Betaproteobacteria classes. Fungal taxa composite scores also separated along PC axes related to the presence of larvae and indicated larval feeding effects on several higher taxonomic groups, including Saccharomycetes, Dothideomycetes, and Chytridiomycota. These results support the hypothesis that larval mosquito feeding and activities altered microbial communities associated with substrate surfaces, potentially leading to decreased food value of the resource and affecting decomposition of particulate matter in the system.     

Evaluation of five antibiotics on larval gut bacterial diversity of Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)

Larvae of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), have rich microbial communities inhabiting the gut, and these bacteria contribute to the fitness of the pest. In this study we evaluated the effects of five antibiotics (rifampicin, ampicillin, tetracycline, streptomycin sulfate and chloramphenicol) on the gut bacterial diversity of P. xylostella larvae. We screened five different concentrations for each antibiotic in a leaf disc assay, and found that rifampicin and streptomycin sulfate at 3 mg/mL significantly reduced the diversity of the bacterial community, and some bacterial species could be rapidly eliminated. The number of gut bacteria in the rifampicin group and streptomycin sulfate group decreased more rapidly than the others. With the increase of antibiotic concentration, the removal efficiency was improved, whereas toxic effects became more apparent. All antibiotics reduced larval growth and development, and eventually caused high mortality, malformation of the prepupae, and hindered pupation and adult emergence. Among the five antibiotics, tetracycline was the most toxic and streptomycin sulfate was a relatively mild one. Some dominant bacteria were not affected by feeding antibiotics alone. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis graph showed that the most abundant and diverse bacteria in P. xylostella larval gut appeared in the cabbage feeding group, and diet change and antibiotics intake influenced gut flora abundance. Species diversity was significantly reduced in the artificial diet and antibiotics treatment groups. After feeding on the artificial diet with rifampicin, streptomycin sulfate and their mixture for 10 days, larval gut bacteria could not be completely removed as detected with the agarose gel electrophoresis method.     

Effect of Inorganic Nutrients on Relative Contributions of Fungi and Bacteria to Carbon Flow from Submerged Decomposing Leaf Litter

The relative contributions of fungi and bacteria to carbon flow from submerged decaying plant litter at different levels of inorganic nutrients (N and P) were studied. We estimated leaf mass loss, fungal and bacterial biomass and production, and microbial respiration and constructed partial carbon budgets for red maple leaf disks precolonized in a stream and then incubated in laboratory microcosms at two levels of nutrients. Patterns of carbon flow for leaf disks colonized with the full microbial assemblage were compared with those colonized by bacteria but in which fungi were greatly reduced by placing leaf disks in colonization chambers sealed with membrane filters to exclude aquatic hyphomycete conidia but not bacterial cells. On leaves colonized by the full microbial assemblage, elevated nutrient concentrations stimulated fungi and bacteria to a similar degree. Peak fungal and bacterial biomass increased by factors of 3.9 and 4.0; cumulative production was 3.9 and 5.1 times higher in the high nutrient in comparison with the low nutrient treatment, respectively. Fungi dominated the total microbial biomass (98.4 to 99.8%) and cumulative production (97.3 and 96.5%), and the fungal yield coefficient exceeded that of bacteria by a factor of 36 and 27 in low- and high-nutrient treatments, respectively. Consequently, the dominant role of fungi in leaf decomposition did not change as a result of nutrient manipulation. Carbon budgets indicated that 8% of leaf carbon loss in the low-nutrient treatment and 17% in the high-nutrient treatment were channeled to microbial (essentially fungal) production. Nutrient enrichment had a positive effect on rate of leaf decomposition only in microcosms with full microbial assemblages. In treatments where fungal colonization was reduced, cumulative bacterial production did not change significantly at either nutrient level and leaf decomposition rate was negatively affected (high nutrients), suggesting that bacterial participation in carbon flow from decaying leaf litter is low regardless of the presence of fungi and nutrient availability. Moreover, 1.5 and 2.3 times higher yield coefficients of bacteria in the reduced fungal treatments at low and high nutrients, respectively (percentage of leaf carbon loss channeled to bacterial production), suggest that bacteria are subjected to strong competition with fungi for resources available in leaf litter.     

Linear and non-linear impacts of a non-native plant invasion on soil microbial community structure and function

Biological invasions can alter ecosystem functions such as litter decomposition and nutrient cycling, but little is known about how invader abundance influences the impact on the ecosystem. It is often assumed that impacts are proportional to invasion density, but this assumption has never been tested and has little justification. We tested the hypothesis that the microbial community structure and function of a mixed hardwood forest soil changed after invasion by Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii), an invasive shrub commonly found in eastern hardwood forests, and that changes were proportional to the density of invasion. We constructed microcosms with mixtures of native and invasive leaf litter, and measured microbial community structure (phospholipid fatty acids) and function (litter decomposition). Decomposition was linearly related to the degree of invasion (R ²?=?0.945), but the ratio of bacteria to fungi exhibited a strongly non-linear, threshold response (R ²?=?0.513). These results indicate that impacts of Japanese barberry invasion are not always proportional to invasion density. This finding has implications for the study of biological invasions as well as practical implications for the management of exotic invasive species.     

Do Botanical Pesticides Alter the Structure of the Soil Microbial Community?

The effects of synthetic pesticides on the soil microbial community have been thoroughly investigated in the past mostly by culture-dependent methods and only few recent studies have used culture-independent approaches for this purpose. However, it should be noted that most of these studies have been conducted in microcosms where the soil microbial community is exposed to unrealistic concentrations of the pesticides, providing an unrealistic exposure scheme for soil microorganism. On the other hand, little is known regarding the potential impact of botanical pesticides on the soil microbial community. Therefore, a laboratory study and a field study were conducted to investigate the effects of synthetic (metham sodium [MS], sodium tetrathiocarbonate [SoTe], and fosthiazate) and botanical pesticides (azadirachtin, quillaja, and pulverized Melia azedarach fruits [PMF]) on the soil microbial community using phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) analysis. Principal component analysis (PCA) on the results of the laboratory study indicated that the application of PMF resulted in significant changes in the soil microbial community. This was obvious by the proportional increase in the abundance of fatty acids 18:1ω9cis, 18:1ω9trans, which are common in gram-negative bacteria and saprotrophic fungi, and 18:2ω6,9, which is a fungal indicator. This response was attributed to the release of copious amounts of organic carbon and nutrients in the soil by the PMF. On the other hand, MS inhibited fungi and gram-negative bacteria, while fosthiazate and the botanical pesticides quillaja and azadirachtin did not impose significant changes in the soil microbial community. Similar results were obtained by the field study where application of the fumigants MS and SoTe significantly altered the structure of the soil microbial community with the former having a more prominent effect. Fosthiazate imposed mild changes in the soil microbial community, whereas quillaja and azadirachtin again did not show a significant effect. Overall, botanical pesticides, at their recommended dose, did not alter the structure of the soil microbial community compared to synthetic nonfumigant and fumigant pesticides which induced significant changes.     

Phagotrophic protists are a key component of microbial communities processing leaf litter under contrasting oxic conditions

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Microbial Response of a Freshwater Benthic Community to a Simulated Diatom Sedimentation Event: Interactive Effects of Benthic Fauna

Abstract The response of a sediment microbial assemblage to a pulse of diatoms was studied over 36 days by measuring bacterial activity and biomass, ATP concentration, and overall community respiration in laboratory microcosms. Also, the contribution of macrofaunal chironomids to the decomposition of settling diatoms in benthic communities, and the relative importance of benthic meiofauna in community metabolism, were determined. The addition of diatoms resulted in an immediate response by sediment bacteria, with higher bacterial production recorded after only 2 h, and a more than tenfold increase within one day. The rapid response by sediment bacteria was accompanied by relatively high initial concentrations of dissolved organic carbon. In treatments receiving diatoms, higher bacterial production was sustained throughout the experiment. Surprisingly, neither these elevated production estimates, nor the starvation of controls affected bacterial abundance. Mean bacterial cell volume, however, was markedly affected by the addition of diatoms. Combining community respiration measurements and bacterial production estimates showed that growth efficiencies for sediment bacteria ranged from 14.6 to 34.5%. The contribution of ambient meiozoobenthos to carbon metabolism was less than 1%. Carbon budgets showed that 1.3 mg C was cooxidized along with 4.3 mg added diatom C. Sediment reworking by Chironomus larvae initially enhanced bacterial production, but the presence of Chironomus resulted in lower bacterial production estimates after 16 and 36 days. This was interpreted as a result of faster decomposition of diatoms in treatments with chironomids, which was validated by a faster decline of ATP and chlorophyll a in the sediment. Our results indicate that Chironomus larvae compete with sediment bacteria for available organic substrates. Received: 11 June 1996; Accepted: 13 August 1996     

Chironomus plumosus larvae increase fluxes of denitrification products and diversity of nitrate-reducing bacteria in freshwater sediment

Benthic invertebrates affect microbial processes and communities in freshwater sediment by enhancing sediment-water solute fluxes and by grazing on bacteria. Using microcosms, the effects of larvae of the widespread midge Chironomus plumosus on the efflux of denitrification products (N₂O and N₂ + N₂O) and the diversity and abundance of nitrate- and nitrous-oxide-reducing bacteria were investigated. Additionally, the diversity of actively nitrate- and nitrous-oxide-reducing bacteria was analyzed in the larval gut. The presence of larvae increased the total effluxes of N₂O and N₂ + N₂O up to 8.6- and 4.2-fold, respectively, which was mostly due to stimulation of sedimentary denitrification; incomplete denitrification in the guts accounted for up to 20% of the N₂O efflux. Phylotype richness of the nitrate reductase gene narG was significantly higher in sediment with than without larvae. In the gut, 47 narG phylotypes were found expressed, which may contribute to higher phylotype richness in colonized sediment. In contrast, phylotype richness of the nitrous oxide reductase gene nosZ was unaffected by the presence of larvae and very few nosZ phylotypes were expressed in the gut. Gene abundance of neither narG, nor nosZ was different in sediments with and without larvae. Hence, C. plumosus increases activity and diversity, but not overall abundance of nitrate-reducing bacteria, probably by providing additional ecological niches in its burrow and gut.     

Bacterial Infection and Immune Responses in Lutzomyia longipalpis Sand Fly Larvae Midgut

The midgut microbial community in insect vectors of disease is crucial for an effective immune response against infection with various human and animal pathogens. Depending on the aspects of their development, insects can acquire microbes present in soil, water, and plants. Sand flies are major vectors of leishmaniasis, and shown to harbor a wide variety of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Sand fly larval stages acquire microorganisms from the soil, and the abundance and distribution of these microorganisms may vary depending on the sand fly species or the breeding site. Here, we assess the distribution of two bacteria commonly found within the gut of sand flies, Pantoea agglomerans and Bacillus subtilis. We demonstrate that these bacteria are able to differentially infect the larval digestive tract, and regulate the immune response in sand fly larvae. Moreover, bacterial distribution, and likely the ability to colonize the gut, is driven, at least in part, by a gradient of pH present in the gut.     

Plant-associated bacteria degrade defense chemicals and reduce their adverse effects on an insect defoliator

Phytophagous insects must contend with numerous secondary defense compounds that can adversely affect their growth and development. The gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) is a polyphagous herbivore that encounters an extensive range of hosts and chemicals. We used this folivore and a primary component of aspen chemical defenses, namely, phenolic glycosides, to investigate if bacteria detoxify phytochemicals and benefit larvae. We conducted insect bioassays using bacteria enriched from environmental samples, analyses of the microbial community in the midguts of bioassay larvae, and in vitro phenolic glycoside metabolism assays. Inoculation with bacteria enhanced larval growth in the presence, but not absence, of phenolic glycosides in the artificial diet. This effect of bacteria on growth was observed only in larvae administered bacteria from aspen foliage. The resulting midgut community composition varied among the bacterial treatments. When phenolic glycosides were included in diet, the composition of midguts in larvae fed aspen bacteria was significantly altered. Phenolic glycosides increased population responses by bacteria that we found able to metabolize these compounds in liquid growth cultures. Several aspects of these results suggest that vectoring or pairwise symbiosis models are inadequate for understanding microbial mediation of plant–herbivore interactions in some systems. First, bacteria that most benefitted larvae were initially foliar residents, suggesting that toxin-degrading abilities of phyllosphere inhabitants indirectly benefit herbivores upon ingestion. Second, assays with single bacteria did not confer the benefits to larvae obtained with consortia, suggesting multi- and inter-microbial interactions are also involved. Our results show that bacteria mediate insect interactions with plant defenses but that these interactions are community specific and highly complex.     

Influence of fertilization on the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, in organic potato production

The abundance of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), in organically grown potato did not change significantly in response to increasing rates of dehydrated poultry manure. However, peaks of abundance of larvae were shifted forward in time in response to the high rate of organic fertilizer. Tests using excised foliage showed that the shift was not caused by differential larval mortality or longer developmental times. Time allocation to resting, walking, and feeding by adults was similar regardless of fertilizer rate. Adult foliage consumption was unaffected by organic fertilizer rates in no choice tests and significantly affected in few choice tests. A 22% longer larval development time on plants treated with low fertilizer rate than on plants with high rate was the most significant effect. Even though maximum plant height, canopy, biomass, and yield were significantly smaller in the organic than in conventional plots, the suitability of the plants was not affected except for reduced feeding by summer beetles. Summer adults spent less time feeding and consumed two to five times less foliage on organic potato than on inorganically fertilized and conventionally produced plants. The overall influence of fertilizer on Colorado potato beetle populations was limited and therefore can only play a secondary role in management strategies for organic potato. Avoidance of excessive organic fertilizer that promotes short larval development time and extension of the period over which large Colorado potato beetle larvae are present should be recommended.     

Effects of Small-Scale Turbulence on Bacteria: A Matter of Size

We examined the influence of small-scale turbulence and its associated shear on bacterioplankton abundance and cell size. We incubated natural microbial assemblages and bacteria-only fractions and subjected them to treatments with turbulence and additions of mineral nutrients and/or organic carbon. Bacterial abundance was not affected directly by turbulence in bacteria-only incubations. In natural microbial assemblage incubations, bacterial concentrations were higher under turbulence than in still-water controls when nutrients were added. In general, in the turbulence treatments bacteria increased significantly in size, mainly due to elongation of cells. The addition of inorganic nutrients had a negative effect on bacterial size, but a significantly positive effect on abundance independently of other factors such as turbulence and the presence of predators. Flagellate grazing did not trigger an increase in bacterial size as a grazing resistance response in unmixed containers. With the addition of organic carbon, bacteria elongated and partly settled to the bottom of the containers, in both the turbulent and still treatment, but bacterial abundance did not further increase. Furthermore, bacteria aggregated in the turbulence treatments after the second day of incubation even in the absence of other components of the microbial community. We found that turbulence and the associated shear increase bacterial size and change bacterial morphology, at least under certain nutrient conditions. This might be due to a physiological response (enhanced growth rate and/or unbalanced growth) or due to the selection of opportunistic strains when organic carbon is in excess compared to mineral nutrients. We suggest that shear associated with turbulent flow enhances the DOM flux to bacteria directly as well as indirectly through enhanced grazing activity and photosynthetic release. The formation of bacterial aggregates and filaments under turbulence might give selective advantage to bacteria in terms of nutrient uptake and grazing resistance.     

Unraveling microbe-mediated interactions between mosquito larvae in a laboratory microcosm

Interspecies interactions have important impacts on communities and when multiple trophic levels are involved, effects can be complex and indirect. For mosquitoes, interactions experienced as larvae affect adult attributes such as survivorship, reproductive output, and longevity, factors that can affect their ability to vector disease. We examined how larvae of two ecologically distinct mosquito species, Aedes japonicus japonicus and Culex quinquefasciatus, interact at different temperatures (17 and 27 °C) and at different relative densities. We also quantified abundances of bacteria and protozoan flagellates to uncover how changes in the microbial community affect the outcome of the two mosquitoes’ interaction. At 17 °C, survival and size of both mosquito species were not affected by the other’s presence. Cx. quinquefasciatus was strongly affected by intraspecific, but not interspecific, competition at both temperatures. At 27 °C, Ae. j. japonicus larvae experienced 100 % mortality in treatments by themselves and treatments where Cx. quinquefasciatus was abundant, surviving only in the presence of low densities of Cx. quinquefasciatus. Both the total bacteria count and counts of a protozoan flagellate identified as Spumella spp. decreased with increasing numbers of Cx. quinquefasciatus. We postulate that at 27 °C, the survival of Ae. j. japonicus depends on the interaction between Cx. quinquefasciatus and the microbial community. This study demonstrates that one mosquito species may alter the microbial community in ways that indirectly influence another mosquito species’ larval survival, and by extension adult abundance and potential disease transmission.     

Response of 1,2-dichloroethane-adapted microbial communities to ex-situ biostimulation of polluted groundwater

The microbial community of a groundwater system contaminated by 1,2-dichloroethane (1,2-DCA), a toxic and persistent chlorinated hydrocarbon, has been investigated for its response to biostimulation finalized to 1,2-DCA removal by reductive dehalogenation. The microbial population profile of samples from different wells in the aquifer and from microcosms enriched in the laboratory with different organic electron donors was analyzed by ARISA (Amplified Ribosomal Intergenic Spacer Analysis) and DGGE (Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis) of 16S rRNA genes. 1,2-DCA was completely removed with release of ethene from most of the microcosms supplemented with lactate, acetate plus formate, while cheese whey supported 1,2-DCA dehalogenation only after a lag period. Microbial species richness deduced from ARISA profiles of the microbial community before and after electron donor amendments indicated that the response of the community to biostimulation was heterogeneous and depended on the well from which groundwater was sampled. Sequencing of 16S rRNA genes separated by DGGE indicated the presence of bacteria previously associated with soils and groundwater polluted by halogenated hydrocarbons or present in consortia active in the removal of these compounds. A PCR assay specific for Desulfitobacterium sp. showed the enrichment of this genus in some of the microcosms. The dehalogenation potential of the microbial community was confirmed by the amplification of dehalogenase-related sequences from the most active microcosms. Cloning and sequencing of PCR products indicated the presence in the metagenome of the bacterial community of a new dehalogenase potentially involved in 1,2-DCA reductive dechlorination.     

Effects of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Coastal Bacterial Community Abundance and Diversity

Hydrostatic pressure is an important parameter influencing the distribution of microbial life in the ocean. In this study, the response of marine bacterial populations from surface waters to pressures representative of those under deep-sea conditions was examined. Southern California coastal seawater collected 5 m below the sea surface was incubated in microcosms, using a range of temperatures (16 to 3°C) and hydrostatic pressure conditions (0.1 to 80 MPa). Cell abundance decreased in response to pressure, while diversity increased. The morphology of the community also changed with pressurization to a predominant morphotype of small cocci. The pressure-induced community changes included an increase in the relative abundance of Alphaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Flavobacteria largely at the expense of Epsilonproteobacteria. Culturable high-pressure-surviving bacteria were obtained and found to be phylogenetically similar to isolates from cold and/or deep-sea environments. These results provide novel insights into the response of surface water bacteria to changes in hydrostatic pressure.     

Aquatic microfauna alter larval food resources and affect development and biomass of West Nile and Saint Louis encephalitis vector Culex nigripalpus (Diptera: Culicidae)

Ciliate protists and rotifers are ubiquitous in aquatic habitats and can comprise a significant portion of the microbial food resources available to larval mosquitoes, often showing substantial declines in abundance in the presence of mosquito larvae. This top‐down regulation of protists is reported to be strong for mosquitoes inhabiting small aquatic containers such as pitcher plants or tree holes, but the nature of these interactions with larval mosquitoes developing in other aquatic habitats is poorly understood. We examined the effects of these two microbial groups on lower trophic level microbial food resources, such as bacteria, small flagellates, and organic particles, in the water column, and on Culex larval development and adult production. In three independent laboratory experiments using two microeukaryote species (one ciliate protist and one rotifer) acquired from field larval mosquito habitats and cultured in the laboratory, we determined the effects of Culex nigripalpus larval grazing on water column microbial dynamics, while simultaneously monitoring larval growth and development. The results revealed previously unknown interactions that were different from the top‐down regulation of microbial groups by mosquito larvae in other systems. Both ciliates and rotifers, singly or in combination, altered other microbial populations and inhibited mosquito growth. It is likely that these microeukaryotes, instead of serving as food resources, competed with early instar mosquito larvae for microbes such as small flagellates and bacteria in a density‐dependent manner. These findings help our understanding of the basic larval biology of Culex mosquitoes, variation in mosquito production among various larval habitats, and may have implications for existing vector control strategies and for developing novel microbial‐based control methods.     

Positive effect of shredders on microbial biomass and decomposition in stream microcosms

1. Animals play a major role in nutrient cycling via excretory processes. Although the positive indirect effects of grazers on periphytic algae are well understood, little is known about top‐down effects on decomposers of shredders living on leaf litter. 2. Nutrient cycling by shredders in oligotrophic forest streams may be important for the microbial‐detritus compartment at very small spatial scales (i.e. within the leaf packs in which shredders feed). We hypothesised that insect excretion may cause local nutrient enrichment, so that microorganism growth on leaves is stimulated. 3. We first tested the effect of increasing concentration of ammonium (+10, +20 and +40 μg NH₄⁺ L^?1) on fungal and bacterial biomass on leaf litter in a laboratory experiment. Then we performed two experiments to test the effect of the presence and feeding activity of shredder larvae. We used two species belonging to the trichopteran family Sericostomatidae: the Palaearctic Sericostoma vittatum and the Neotropical Myothrichia murina, to test the effect of these shredders on fungal and bacterial biomass and decomposition on leaves of Quercus robur and Nothofagus pumilio, respectively. All experiments were run in water with low ammonium concentrations (2.4 ± 0.34 to 14.47 ± 0.95 μg NH₄⁺ L^?1). 4. After 5 days of incubation, NH₄ concentrations were reduced to near‐ambient streamwater concentrations in all treatments with leaves. Fungal biomass was positively affected by increased ammonium concentration. On the other hand, bacteria abundance was similar in all treatments, both in terms of abundance (bacteria cells mg^?1 leaf DW) and biomass. However, there was a tendency towards larger mean cell size in treatments with 20 μg NH₄ L^?1. 5. In the experiment with S. vittatum, fungal biomass in the treatment with insects was more than twice that in the control after 15 days. Bacteria were not detected in treatments with insects, where hyphae were abundant, but they were abundant in treatments without larvae. In the decomposition experiment run with M. murina, leaf‐mass loss was significantly higher in treatments with larvae than in controls. 6. Our hypothesis of a positive effect of shredders on fungal biomass and decomposition was demonstrated. Insect excretion caused ammonium concentration to increase in the microcosms, contributing to microbial N uptake in leaf substrata, which resulted in structural and functional changes in community attributes. The positive effect of detritivores on microbes has been mostly neglected in stream nutrient‐cycling models; our findings suggest that this phenomenon may be of greater importance than expected in stream nutrient budgets.     

Sediment Microbial Community Structure and Mercury Methylation in Mercury-Polluted Clear Lake, California

Spatial and temporal variations in sediment microbial community structure in a eutrophic lake polluted with inorganic mercury were identified using polar lipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis. Microbial community structure was strongly related to mercury methylation potential, sediment organic carbon content, and lake location. Pore water sulfate, total mercury concentrations, and organic matter C/N ratios showed no relationships with microbial community structure. Seasonal changes and changes potentially attributable to temperature regulation of bacterial membranes were detectable but were less important influences on sediment PLFA composition than were differences due to lake sampling location. Analysis of biomarker PLFAs characteristic of Desulfobacter and Desulfovibrio groups of sulfate-reducing bacteria suggests that Desulfobacter-like organisms are important mercury methylators in the sediments, especially in the Lower Arm of Clear Lake.