10株铜绿假单胞菌的全基因组序列分析

目的 了解不同分离来源铜绿假单胞菌的全基因组基本特征,以此分析基因组多态性及其遗传进化关系。方法 选择10株医源性和食源性来源的铜绿假单胞菌代表性菌株,应用Solexa高通量测序技术对其进行全基因组测序,以此进行多位点序列分型(multilocus sequence typing, MLST),比较各菌株基因组中携带的耐药基因、毒力基因及插入序列(insertion sequence, IS)元件,并通过比较基因组学分析方法拟合泛基因组和核心基因组积累曲线,筛选核心基因SNP构建系统发育分子进化树。结果 10株菌的基因组从6.3～7.0 Mbp大小不一,包含5 868～6 598个基因,平均G+C含量为67.1%;发现10个菌株各具不同的ST型。在这10个菌株的基因组中,共检测到75种耐药基因,包括抗β-内酰胺酶类、抗氨基糖苷类、抗氟喹诺酮类等;共发现188种毒力基因,不同来源菌株间无明显差异;各菌株之间IS元件种类和数量差异较大。分析发现,铜绿假单胞菌具有开放型泛基因组和稳定型核心基因组;10株菌可分为3个进化分支,且不同分离时间和来源无明显相关性。结论 本研究获得10株不同分离来源的铜绿假单胞菌的全基因组序列,初步证实食品及患者分离来源菌株基因组数据无明显相关性,为后续铜绿假单胞菌的分子流行病学和致病性机制研究提供数据参考。     

环状芽孢杆菌泛基因组分析及次级代谢通路挖掘

旨为对环状芽孢杆菌基因组进行更深入的了解,并探索其次级代谢通路。从NCBI数据库下载了9个环状芽孢杆菌的基因组,利用系统发育分析软件、泛基因组分析软件和次级代谢产物挖掘软件对其进行了分析。9株菌的基因组大小在5.01-9.63Mb之间,在进化树上被归为了两个分支。通过泛基因组和核心基因组分析,发现其泛基因组含有9 572个基因家族,核心基因组由3 622个基因家族组成;共鉴定出4 593个特有基因,其中菌株NCTC2610的特有基因最多(3 030个),而菌株NBRC 13626的特有基因最少(39个)。通过次级代谢产物合成基因簇分析,9个环状芽孢杆菌基因组中共发现6类、32个次级代谢基因簇,重复出现最多的代谢通路是羊毛硫肽、套索肽和萜烯类化合物合成通路。通过本研究,明确了环状芽孢杆菌的泛基因组和核心基因组大小,预测了其次级代谢通路,有助于我们全面了解环状芽孢杆菌,为进一步更好地利用该菌株提供线索。     

梅花草属叶绿体基因组进化分析

叶绿体基因组序列变异和基因组成等特征可有效反映植物类群间的系统发育和进化关系。本研究利用Illumina高通量测序平台对梅花草属（Parnassia）及其近缘属5种植物的叶绿体基因组进行测序和组装,同时基于已发表的近缘种叶绿体基因组信息,对梅花草属叶绿体基因组结构特征、序列遗传变异和蛋白编码基因密码子偏好性比对分析。结果显示：梅花草属叶绿体基因组整体结构较为保守,均为四分体结构;梅花草多个基因出现假基因化,而本属其他物种叶绿体基因组成一致,均编码115个基因;与近缘属物种相比,本属所有物种均丢失rpl16基因的内含子;蛋白质编码基因的非同义/同义替代率比值较低,叶绿体基因可能经历纯化选择作用;密码子偏好性聚类结果与蛋白编码序列重建的系统发育关系结果一致。本研究表明选择压力可能在梅花草属叶绿体基因组蛋白编码基因进化过程中发挥作用,有助于进一步理解梅花草属植物的进化和适应机制。     

原核生物基因组三核苷酸转移概率偏倚的物种特异性及致病关联性

作为DNA序列的重要组成特征,基因组寡核苷酸使用模式及其偏倚的研究已被广泛应用于原核生物基因组的分析。然而,关于寡核苷酸使用模式的偏倚是否具有种群特异性并反映种群的功能这一问题,尚未阐明。我们基于一阶马尔可夫链模型,提出了一个度量寡核苷酸使用模式偏倚的新指标——基因组三核苷酸(trinucleotide,tri-)转移概率偏倚(transition probability bias,TPB)特征向量,或称之为三核苷酸转移概率最大偏倚分布,并分析比较了727条有代表性的原核生物基因组序列tri-TPB特征向量。结果表明,基因组tri-TPB特征向量具有物种特异性,亲缘关系越近的物种,它们的tri-TPB特征向量越相似;同种内的不同菌株具有几乎完全相同的tri-TPB特征向量,并且不依赖于基因组的GC含量;此外,基因组tri-TPB特征向量的相似性与菌株的致病性特征相关。本研究结果为基于全基因组寡核苷酸组成和分布信息的物种及其致病性进化分析提供了新的思路和方法。     

莠去津降解菌泛基因组测序及比较基因组分析

Arthrobacter aurescens TC1和Pseudomonas sp. ADP是目前莠去津降解菌的模式菌株,筛选出Microbacterium sp.HBT4,旨在挖掘这3株不同种属细菌基因组间生物学信息的异同,并预测重要基因。通过Illumina Hiseq 4000测序平台采用DNA小文库制备和测序技术,进行了泛基因组测序,使用相关软件进行基因组组分分析、基因功能注释、基因间变异检测和比较基因组学分析,将分离得到的微杆菌HBT4与模式菌株进行核苷酸组成、共线性及菌株间变异差异分析。得到该菌株基因组大小约为3.53Mb,预测到菌株HBT4编码基因3 397个、重复序列含量为1.33%、非编码RNA 63个,通用数据库基因功能注释共3 324个,专用数据库基因功能注释共1 149个,通过菌株间差异变异分析发现SNP、Small InDel和水平转移基因,未发现结构变异基因,获得该菌株特有基因中GO注释到的基因在细胞组分、分子功能和生物学进程中的数量和比例,从KEGG代谢通路富集图中发现特有基因编码的二氢硫基赖氨酸残基琥珀酰转移酶位于三羧酸循环中α-酮戊二酸和琥珀酰辅酶A的代谢通路之间。获得3个菌株核心基因组与非必需基因组比例分布、系统进化树和共线性关系,发现三者之间共有基因家族986个、菌株HBT4特有基因家族1 171个。得到的菌株HBT4与两株模式菌株相比,其基因家族之间既有相同之处,又有较大差异。     

谱系特有基因研究进展

谱系特有基因(Lineage-specific genes,LSGs)是指在一个谱系中特有并与其他物种谱系所有基因没有明显序列相似性的基因,约为物种基因组全部基因数量的10%~20%,于1996年首次在完成全基因组测序的酵母基因组中大量发现。大规模测序技术的发展使谱系特有基因研究成为比较基因组学的研究热点,已在微生物、海洋低等生物、植物(如拟南芥、水稻、杨树)、昆虫及高等灵长类动物等多个物种或类群中展开,其生物功能对于阐明物种进化历程和生物适应性具有重要意义。文章介绍了谱系特有基因的研究背景和现状,从谱系特有基因获取、基因结构分析、进化起源、生物功能、表达特性分析等方面阐述谱系特有基因的研究进展,分析了存在的问题和后续研究方向,以期为相关研究提供参考。     

全基因组测序在重要家畜上的研究进展

全基因组测序研究主要包括通过不同测序技术和组装比对方法,获得某物种的全基因组序列图谱,及在此基础上构建物种全基因组遗传变异图谱进行个体或群体遗传多样性、选择信号或起源进化等方面的研究。利用单核苷酸多态性(SNP)、插入和缺失(Indel)和拷贝数变异(CNV)等遗传变异作为分子标记,全基因组测序研究已经在家畜起源进化、驯化、适应性机制、重要经济性状候选基因、群体历史动态等方面取得了许多重要的研究成果。本文主要对近几年全基因组测序在常见家畜(猪、马、牛、羊等及其近缘物种)的取得的重要研究成果进行了综述,并讨论了全基因组测序的优势、缺点及在生产中意义。此外,对基因组测序研究的未来发展进行了归纳及展望,以期为今后家畜重要经济性状的功能基因定位和物种起源、驯化研究提供参考。     

泛基因组研究在遗传多样性和功能基因组学中的应用

相对于单个参考基因组仅聚焦于个体遗传信息的挖掘,泛基因组研究则能够反映整个物种或类群全部的遗传信息。随着基因组测序和分析技术的不断发展,泛基因组学逐渐成为新的研究热点,并已在植物、动物和微生物多个物种中获得了广泛应用,为全面解析物种或类群水平的遗传变异和多样性、功能基因组和系统进化重建等研究提供了强有力的工具,取得了很多显著的研究成果。尽管如此,由于泛基因组学研究尚处于发展阶段,测序费用和分析成本仍然较高,难以广泛普及; 且存在分析标准不一、数据挖掘不够全面深入、理论难以应用于生产实际等尚待解决的问题,仍有较大的发展空间。该文系统总结了泛基因组在生物遗传多样性挖掘和功能基因组学中的研究进展,主要包括其在泛基因组图谱的构建、基因组变异和有利基因的发掘、功能基因的多态性、群体遗传多样性和系统进化等多个领域中的应用和研究,探讨了其在不同领域的应用潜力。同时,讨论了目前泛基因组研究中存在的局限性和可能的解决方法,并对其将来的发展前景进行了展望。     

三种模式微生物基因组中GC含量的比较

GC含量是核酸序列组成的重要特征,其含量可作为反映进化的一种指标。为了探索GC含量作用于基因组的进化压力,本研究研究了大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli)和枯草杆菌(Bacillus subtilis)、真核生物酿酒酵母(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)三种模式微生物基因组编码序列的GC含量,分析了其基因组中蛋白质编码序列的GC含量与编码序列长度的关联,结果发现编码序列的GC含量与序列相对频数有一定的相关性,且编码序列的GC含量随序列相对频数的分布具有一定的规律。根据分布曲线我们推测这种规律应该符合某种分布,并用各种分布函数进行拟合,研究结果发现基因组中编码序列的GC含量随序列频数的分布与高斯分布相符合,且这种分布在真核生物和原核生物间有显著区别。另外,不同长度的编码序列GC含量的分析结果表明,编码序列的GC含量与序列长度有一定的相关性。     

短杆菌属海洋环境适应机制的泛基因组学

[目的]为了探究短杆菌属对海洋环境的适应机制.[方法]本研究通过对6株分离自不同洋区、属于不同分类单元的短杆菌菌株进行测序、拼接和注释,结合23株从美国国家生物技术信息中心(NCBI)下载的短杆菌属模式菌株及非模式菌株的基因组数据,进行泛基因组学分析和物种进化分析.[结果]泛基因组学分析表明短杆菌属具有开放型泛基因组,...     

The microbial pan-genome

A decade after the beginning of the genomic era, the question of how genomics can describe a bacterial species has not been fully addressed. Experimental data have shown that in some species new genes are discovered even after sequencing the genomes of several strains. Mathematical modeling predicts that new genes will be discovered even after sequencing hundreds of genomes per species. Therefore, a bacterial species can be described by its pan-genome, which is composed of a "core genome" containing genes present in all strains, and a "dispensable genome" containing genes present in two or more strains and genes unique to single strains. Given that the number of unique genes is vast, the pan-genome of a bacterial species might be orders of magnitude larger than any single genome.     

Similar ectopic gene conversion frequencies in the backbone genome of pathogenic and nonpathogenic Escherichia coli strains

We previously showed that gene conversions were more frequent in the genomes of three Escherichia coli pathogenic strains than in the genome of the nonpathogenic K-12 E. coli strain. However, that study did not address whether the more frequent conversions observed in the genes of pathogenic strains occurred between the backbone genes common to these four strains or in the numerous horizontally transferred genes found only in pathogenic strains. Here, we show that ectopic gene conversions are equally frequent in the backbone genes of pathogenic and nonpathogenic strains, that most of these conversions are short, and that the nucleotide changes they generate are probably selectively neutral. Backbone genes are therefore under similar selective constraints in both pathogenic and nonpathogenic E. coli strains. The higher frequency of gene conversions we previously observed in pathogenic strains is therefore due to higher conversion frequencies between the numerous horizontally transferred genes found only in pathogenic strains.     

Evidence of horizontal gene transfer between human and animal commensal Escherichia coli strains identified by microarray

Bacteria exchange genetic material by horizontal gene transfer (HGT). To evaluate the impact of HGT on Escherichia coli genome plasticity, 19 commensal strains collected from the intestinal floras of humans and animals were analyzed by microarrays. Strains were hybridized against an oligoarray containing 2700 E. coli K12 chromosomal genes. A core (genes shared among compared genomes) and a flexible gene pool (genes unique for each genome) have been identified. Analysis of hybridization signals evidenced 1015 divergent genes among the 19 strains and each strain showed a specific genomic variability pattern. Four hundred and fifty-eight genes were characterized by higher rates of interstrain variation and were considered hyperdivergent. These genes are not randomly distributed onto the chromosome but are clustered in precise regions. Hyperdivergent genes belong to the flexible gene pool and show a specific GC content, differing from that of the chromosome, indicating acquisition by HGT. Among these genes, those involved in defense mechanisms and cell motility as well as intracellular trafficking and secretion were far more represented than others. The observed genome plasticity contributes to the maintenance of genetic diversity and may therefore be a source of evolutionary adaptation and survival.     

Comparison of 61 Sequenced Escherichia coli Genomes

Escherichia coli is an important component of the biosphere and is an ideal model for studies of processes involved in bacterial genome evolution. Sixty-one publically available E. coli and Shigella spp. sequenced genomes are compared, using basic methods to produce phylogenetic and proteomics trees, and to identify the pan- and core genomes of this set of sequenced strains. A hierarchical clustering of variable genes allowed clear separation of the strains into clusters, including known pathotypes; clinically relevant serotypes can also be resolved in this way. In contrast, when in silico MLST was performed, many of the various strains appear jumbled and less well resolved. The predicted pan-genome comprises 15,741 gene families, and only 993 (6%) of the families are represented in every genome, comprising the core genome. The variable or ‘accessory’ genes thus make up more than 90% of the pan-genome and about 80% of a typical genome; some of these variable genes tend to be co-localized on genomic islands. The diversity within the species E. coli, and the overlap in gene content between this and related species, suggests a continuum rather than sharp species borders in this group of Enterobacteriaceae.     

Extensive genomic diversity in pathogenic Escherichia coli and Shigella Strains revealed by comparative genomic hybridization microarray

Escherichia coli, including the closely related genus Shigella, is a highly diverse species in terms of genome structure. Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) microarray analysis was used to compare the gene content of E. coli K-12 with the gene contents of pathogenic strains. Missing genes in a pathogen were detected on a microarray slide spotted with 4,071 open reading frames (ORFs) of W3110, a commonly used wild-type K-12 strain. For 22 strains subjected to the CGH microarray analyses 1,424 ORFs were found to be absent in at least one strain. The common backbone of the E. coli genome was estimated to contain about 2,800 ORFs. The mosaic distribution of absent regions indicated that the genomes of pathogenic strains were highly diversified because of insertions and deletions. Prophages, cell envelope genes, transporter genes, and regulator genes in the K-12 genome often were not present in pathogens. The gene contents of the strains tested were recognized as a matrix for a neighbor-joining analysis. The phylogenic tree obtained was consistent with the results of previous studies. However, unique relationships between enteroinvasive strains and Shigella, uropathogenic, and some enteropathogenic strains were suggested by the results of this study. The data demonstrated that the CGH microarray technique is useful not only for genomic comparisons but also for phylogenic analysis of E. coli at the strain level.     

Comparative analysis of methodologies for the detection of horizontally transferred genes: a reassessment of first-order Markov models

With the advent of larger genome databases detection of horizontal gene transfer events has been transformed into an increasingly important issue. Here we present a simple theoretical analysis based on the in silico artificial addition of known foreign genes from different prokaryotic groups into the genome of Escherichia coli K12 MG1655. Using this dataset as a control, we have tested the efficiency of four methodologies commonly employed to detect HTG (Horizontally transferred genes), which are based on (a) the codon adaptation index, codon usage, and GC percentage (CAI/GC); (b) a distributional profile (DP) approach made by a gene search in the closely related phylogenetic genomes; (c) a Bayesian model (BM); and (d) a first-order Markov model (MM). All methods exhibit limitations although, as shown here, the BM and the MM are better approximations. Moreover, the MM has demonstrated a more accurate rate of detections when genes from closely related organisms are evaluated. The application of the MM to detect recently transferred genes in the genomes of E. coli strains K12 MG1655, O157 EDL933, and Salmonella typhimurium, shows that these organisms have undergone a rather significant amount of HTG, most of which appear to be pseudogenes. Few of these sequences that have undergone HGT appear to have well defined functions and may be involved in the organism's adaptation.     

Comparative Genomics of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bifidobacterium</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lactobacillus</Emphasis> and Related Probiotic Genera

Six bacterial genera containing species commonly used as probiotics for human consumption or starter cultures for food fermentation were compared and contrasted, based on publicly available complete genome sequences. The analysis included 19 Bifidobacterium genomes, 21 Lactobacillus genomes, 4 Lactococcus and 3 Leuconostoc genomes, as well as a selection of Enterococcus (11) and Streptococcus (23) genomes. The latter two genera included genomes from probiotic or commensal as well as pathogenic organisms to investigate if their non-pathogenic members shared more genes with the other probiotic genomes than their pathogenic members. The pan- and core genome of each genus was defined. Pairwise BLASTP genome comparison was performed within and between genera. It turned out that pathogenic Streptococcus and Enterococcus shared more gene families than did the non-pathogenic genomes. In silico multilocus sequence typing was carried out for all genomes per genus, and the variable gene content of genomes was compared within the genera. Informative BLAST Atlases were constructed to visualize genomic variation within genera. The clusters of orthologous groups (COG) classes of all genes in the pan- and core genome of each genus were compared. In addition, it was investigated whether pathogenic genomes contain different COG classes compared to the probiotic or fermentative organisms, again comparing their pan- and core genomes. The obtained results were compared with published data from the literature. This study illustrates how over 80 genomes can be broadly compared using simple bioinformatic tools, leading to both confirmation of known information as well as novel observations.     

Analysis of genome plasticity in pathogenic and commensal Escherichia coli isolates by use of DNA arrays

Genomes of prokaryotes differ significantly in size and DNA composition. Escherichia coli is considered a model organism to analyze the processes involved in bacterial genome evolution, as the species comprises numerous pathogenic and commensal variants. Pathogenic and nonpathogenic E. coli strains differ in the presence and absence of additional DNA elements contributing to specific virulence traits and also in the presence and absence of additional genetic information. To analyze the genetic diversity of pathogenic and commensal E. coli isolates, a whole-genome approach was applied. Using DNA arrays, the presence of all translatable open reading frames (ORFs) of nonpathogenic E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 was investigated in 26 E. coli isolates, including various extraintestinal and intestinal pathogenic E. coli isolates, 3 pathogenicity island deletion mutants, and commensal and laboratory strains. Additionally, the presence of virulence-associated genes of E. coli was determined using a DNA "pathoarray" developed in our laboratory. The frequency and distributional pattern of genomic variations vary widely in different E. coli strains. Up to 10% of the E. coli K-12-specific ORFs were not detectable in the genomes of the different strains. DNA sequences described for extraintestinal or intestinal pathogenic E. coli are more frequently detectable in isolates of the same origin than in other pathotypes. Several genes coding for virulence or fitness factors are also present in commensal E. coli isolates. Based on these results, the conserved E. coli core genome is estimated to consist of at least 3,100 translatable ORFs. The absence of K-12-specific ORFs was detectable in all chromosomal regions. These data demonstrate the great genome heterogeneity and genetic diversity among E. coli strains and underline the fact that both the acquisition and deletion of DNA elements are important processes involved in the evolution of prokaryotes.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salmonella enterica</Emphasis> Pan-genome

Salmonella enterica is divided into four subspecies containing a large number of different serovars, several of which are important zoonotic pathogens and some show a high degree of host specificity or host preference. We compare 45 sequenced S. enterica genomes that are publicly available (22 complete and 23 draft genome sequences). Of these, 35 were found to be of sufficiently good quality to allow a detailed analysis, along with two Escherichia coli strains (K-12 substr. DH10B and the avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC O1) strain). All genomes were subjected to standardized gene finding, and the core and pan-genome of Salmonella were estimated to be around 2,800 and 10,000 gene families, respectively. The constructed pan-genomic dendrograms suggest that gene content is often, but not uniformly correlated to serotype. Any given Salmonella strain has a large stable core, whilst there is an abundance of accessory genes, including the Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPIs), transposable elements, phages, and plasmid DNA. We visualize conservation in the genomes in relation to chromosomal location and DNA structural features and find that variation in gene content is localized in a selection of variable genomic regions or islands. These include the SPIs but also encompass phage insertion sites and transposable elements. The islands were typically well conserved in several, but not all, isolates—a difference which may have implications in, e.g., host specificity.