New Luminescence Ages for the Galería Complex Archaeological Site: Resolving Chronological Uncertainties on the Acheulean Record of the Sierra de Atapuerca,Northern Spain

The archaeological karstic infill site of Galería Complex, located within the Atapuerca system (Spain), has produced a large faunal and archaeological record (Homo sp. aff. heidelbergensis fossils and Mode II lithic artefacts) belonging to the Middle Pleistocene. Extended-range luminescence dating techniques, namely post-infrared infrared stimulated luminescence (pIR-IR) dating of K-feldspars and thermally transferred optically stimulated luminescence (TT-OSL) dating of individual quartz grains, were applied to fossil-bearing sediments at Galería. The luminescence dating results are in good agreement with published chronologies derived using alternative radiometric dating methods (i.e., ESR and U-series dating of bracketing speleothems and combined ESR/U-series dating of herbivore teeth), as well as biochronology and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions inferred from proxy records (e.g., pollen data). For the majority of samples dated, however, the new luminescence ages are significantly (∼50%) younger than previously published polymineral thermoluminescence (TL) chronologies, suggesting that the latter may have overestimated the true burial age of the Galería deposits. The luminescence ages obtained indicate that the top of the basal sterile sands (GIb) at Galería have an age of up to ∼370 thousand years (ka), while the lowermost sub-unit containing Mode II Acheulean lithics (base of unit GIIa) was deposited during MIS 9 (mean age = 313±14 ka; n = 4). The overlying units GIIb-GIV, which contain the richest archaeopalaeontological remains, were deposited during late MIS 8 or early MIS 7 (∼240 ka). Galería Complex may be correlative with other Middle Pleistocene sites from Atapuerca, such as Gran Dolina level TD10 and unit TE19 from Sima del Elefante, but the lowermost archaeological horizons are ∼100 ka younger than the hominin-bearing clay breccias at the Sima de los Huesos site. Our results suggest that both pIR-IR and single-grain TT-OSL dating are suitable for resolving Middle Pleistocene chronologies for the Sierra de Atapuerca karstic infill sequences.     

The thumb of Miocene apes: new insights from Castell de Barberà (Catalonia, Spain)

Primate hands display a major selective compromise between locomotion and manipulation. The thumb may or may not participate in locomotion, but it plays a central role in most manipulative activities. Understanding whether or not the last common ancestor of humans and Pan displayed extant-ape-like hand proportions (i.e., relatively long fingers and a short thumb) can be clarified by the analysis of Miocene ape hand remains. Here we describe new pollical remains-a complete proximal phalanx and a partial distal phalanx-from the middle/late Miocene site of Castell de Barberà (ca., 11.2-10.5 Ma, Vallès-Penedès Basin), and provide morphometric and qualitative comparisons with other available Miocene specimens as well as extant catarrhines (including humans). Our results show that all available Miocene taxa (Proconsul, Nacholapithecus, Afropithecus, Sivapithecus, Hispanopithecus, Oreopithecus, and the hominoid from Castell de Barberà) share a similar phalangeal thumb morphology: the phalanges are relatively long, and the proximal phalanges have a high degree of curvature, marked insertions for the flexor muscles, a palmarly bent trochlea and a low basal height. All these features suggest that these Miocene apes used their thumb with an emphasis on flexion, most of them to powerfully assist the fingers during above-branch, grasping arboreal locomotion. Moreover, in terms of relative proximal phalangeal length, the thumb of Miocene taxa is intermediate between the long-thumbed humans and the short-thumbed extant apes. Together with previous evidence, this suggests that a moderate-length hand with relatively long thumb-involved in locomotion-is the original hand morphotype for the Hominidae.     

Lower limb bone structure of Middle Pleistocene hominins from the Caune de l’Arago (Tautavel,France): Evolutionary and functional comparison with the penecontemporaneous hominins of Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca,Spain)

The Caune de l’Arago (Arago) and Sima de los Huesos (Sima) human bones from the European Middle Pleistocene are penecontemporaneous, although the Sima hominins are closely related to Neandertal, and Arago hominins present more archaic features. In previous and in press studies, the cross-sectional geometric properties (CSG) of lower limb bones of Arago and Sima have been studied separately without comparative analyses. Here, in order to bridge this gap, we use the same criteria for both samples to highlight evolutionary affinities and to compare their level and pattern of mobility. This study focuses on the femur, fibula and tibia from Arago and Sima with references to fossils from the sites of Trinil, Zhoukoudian and Lazaret, and ancient and recent Homo sapiens (including athletes and non-athletes). We analyze the cross-sectional areas, biomechanical bone “shape” indices (Ix/Iy, Imax/Imin) and pattern of cortical bone distribution. All lower limb bones from Arago have noticeably high to very high relative cortical areas and low to very low medullary areas. The overall femoral pattern in Arago, like Sima, is similar to that of Middle Pleistocene hominins (e.g., low femoral shape indices, Ix/Iy) and Neandertals (e.g., large cross-sectional size). However, the femoral midshaft in Sima presents prominent posteromedial cortical thickening, as a result of a spiral cortical reinforcement along the medial side of the diaphysis. This characteristic is specific to Neandertal and some Middle Pleistocene hominins. In contrast, the midshaft femoral pattern in Arago is close to that of some Homo erectus. We also note that the femoral cross-sectional size and relative cortical area in Arago differ drastically to the small size and low relative cortical area of Lazaret and Trinil hominins. The very high shape index at midshaft (i.e., high Imax/Imin) of the Arago tibia is observed in ancient H. sapiens and runners; the tibial posterior “pilaster” is found in Neandertals and ancient H. sapiens; and the flat or convex tibial faces are similar to Neandertals. Furthermore, the Arago fibulas show marked fibular posterolateral cortical reinforcement with low anteroposterior strengthening. These leg features (tibia, fibula) are also found in some Sima hominins (but not in all individuals). Consequently, this study confirms the presence of archaic features in Arago and the close evolutionary relationship between Sima and Neandertal. This proposition is mainly based on the femoral midshaft pattern influenced by the pelvofemoral complex, considered to be substantially genetically controlled. The leg functional analysis highlights a high level of mobility and travelling in uneven terrains or in mountainous areas in Arago, consistent with known environments and hunting practices. Previously, an analogous hypothesis was proposed put forward for Sima hominins.     

Bryophyte flora of the Sierras de Filabres,Cabrera, Alhamilla and Cabo de Gata (Almería,S.E. Spain)

Abstract

The bryophyte flora of the Sierras de Filabres, Cabrera, Alhamilla and Cabo de Gata of Almería province (S.E. Spain) includes 280 taxa (236 mosses and 44 liverworts) of which 74 are new to the province of Almería, 31 to the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula and 4 to the Iberian Peninsula. Data about their biogeography and ecology are given.     

The distribution and ecology of littoral Oligochaeta and Aphanoneura (Annelida) of the Natural and Historical Reserve of Isla Martín García,Río de la Plata River,Argentina

The objective of this paper is to provide data on the distribution and ecology of oligochaetes and aphanoneurans occurring in the Río de la Plata, Argentina, including details regarding, their densities, faunal characteristics, species richness, diversity and equitability. Between 1995 and 1997, a total of five stations on the Río de la Plata were sampled on eight different occasions. The taxocenosis of Oligochaeta and Aphanoneura included 30 species belonging in six families: Naididae, Tubificidae, Narapidae, Enchytraeidae, Lumbricidae and Aeolosomatidae. The density varied between 44495 ind m^–2 and 57 ind m^–2. Species richness varied between 1 and 17, the diversity ranged from 0.07 to 2.55, and equitability varied between 0.08 and 0.64. According to dominance and frequency, the dominant, constant and widely distributed species were: Nais variabilis, Stephensoniana trivandrana, Amphichaeta leydigi, Chaetogaster diastrophus, Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, Aulodrilus pigueti, Narapa bonettoi and the species of Enchytraeidae and Aeolosomatidae.     

Carnivore Trackways from the Miocene Site of Salinas de Añana (Alava,Spain)

A fossil tracksite of Lower Miocene age discovered near Salinas de Añana, Alava (Spain), has rendered an exceptionally well-preserved assemblage of vertebrate ichnites. The site shows a high proportion of carnivore tracks (3 out of 5 mammal ichnospecies) and a high number of individual trackways (15), some including over 50 consecutive footprints. The carnivore ichnites are classified as Felipeda lynxi Panin & Avram, 1962 Panin, M. and Avram, B. 1962. Noi urme de vertebrate in Miocenul Subcarpatilor Rominesti. Studii Cercet Geologia, 13: 521–525.  [Google Scholar], Felipeda parvula ichnosp. nov. and Canipeda longigriffa Panin & Avram, 1962 Panin, M. and Avram, B. 1962. Noi urme de vertebrate in Miocenul Subcarpatilor Rominesti. Studii Cercet Geologia, 13: 521–525.  [Google Scholar], and they are attributed to a felid, an undetermined small aeluroid, and a herpestid, respectively. The long trackways allow determination of gaits, which include lateral sequence walks and diagonal sequence trots, and of speed, which ranges from 0.4 to 1.4 m/s. Froude numbers range between 0.1 and 0.8, agreeing with gait interpretations and speed calculations. The felid trackways provide the first known evidence of group traveling in fossil cats. The herpestid footprints show modern-grade adaptations for terrestrial locomotion and digging.     

Population effects of sarcoptic mange in Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) from Sierra Espuña Regional Park, Spain

The nonindigenous Barbary sheep population (Ammotragus lervia) of the Sierra Espuna Regional Park (Murcia, Spain) suffered an outbreak of sarcoptic mange between 1991 and 1995, which contributed to a population decrease of 86%. This study presents the results of two population surveys conducted in 1994 and 1999 based on the fixed point and itineraries method (FPI) and the excrement count (EC) method, as well as data from demographic estimates and clinical observations conducted by the Regional Administration of Murcia. Results of surveillance for mange are given between 1992 and 1995, because no animals were observed with sarcoptic mange in 1999. Prevalence of mange peaked in 1994 and then declined. During the regression phase of the epidemic, there was a higher infection rate in males (21.9%) than in females (16.6%) or young animals (5.1%). Males over 5 yr old were the worst affected age group, followed by subadults of both sexes. Few animals had generalized lesions of mange (7%), and most individuals (72%) had lesions of moderate severity. The most common locations of lesions were the neck, head, and back. The density of Barbary sheep in the Sierra Espuna Regional Park increased from introduction in 1972 until it peaked at 13 animals/km(2) in 1991, the year when the first case of sarcoptic mange was detected. After 2 yr of the mange epidemic, the average estimated density was 1.7 animals/km(2) in 1994, which increased to 5.0 animals/km(2) in 1999. The average group size also increased from 7.9 to 19.2 animals/group between 1994 and 1999. The sex ratio, expressed as the proportion of females in the total population observed, decreased from 0.61 in 1994 to 0.49 in 1999. The reproduction rate (kids per females per year) was essentially stable (0.59 in 1994 to 0.65 in 1999). Between 1994 and 1999 the population aged, with the number of young animals (<18 mo of age) decreasing from 45.3% to 36.6% from 1994 to 1999. In the same period, the proportion of males increased 21.4% to 32.6%. We believe sarcoptic mange acted as one of the regulating factors of population density after 1991 and that currently, although no sarcoptic mange lesions were observed in the 1999 survey, there is a demographic imbalance in sex ratio, age structure, and density.     

Anisakid parasites of two forkbeards (Phycis blennoides and Phycis phycis) from the Mediterranean coasts of Andalucía (Southern Spain)

An epidemiological survey of anisakids was carried out on 209 specimens of greater forkbeard (Phycis blennoides) and 58 of forkbeard (Phycis phycis) captured off the Mediterranean coasts of Andalucía (southern Spain). Four species of nematodes were identified: Anisakis simplex s.l., Anisakis physeteris, Hysterothylacium aduncum and Hysterothylacium fabri. The total prevalence was 62.06% in the forkbeard and 58.85% in the greater forkbeard. The highest values of prevalence (56.90%), mean intensity (5.21) and mean abundance (2.96) were all obtained for H. fabri in the forkbeard. The most frequent parasite in the greater forkbeard was H. aduncum with 51.20% prevalence and values of 3.00 and 1.53 for mean intensity and mean abundance, respectively. The infestation parameters were also analyzed according to the host length, observing a maximum of parasitized fish (91.67%) in samples of P. blennoides longer than 40 cm, while in P. phycis, the highest prevalence (82.35%), conditioned by H. fabri parasitization, was found in fish with lengths between 30 and 35 cm.     

The late Holocene palaeoecological sequence of Serranía de las Villuercas (southern Meseta,western Spain)

New pollen results and radiocarbon dating from a valley mire in south-western Spain are presented. This is a region where few palaeoecological records have been preserved and the sequence yields important new palaeobotanical evidence for the late Holocene. The landscape is shown as having been largely open woodland, but more wooded than at present. The vegetation history of the last four millennia in these montane territories of south-western Iberia is discussed in the light of anthropogenic indicators, archaeological and documentary archives; fire incidence and climate change. Alnus is the predominant pollen type, although a decline is noted during the last couple of centuries. Its presence is connected with local topography behaving as a phreatophyte, that is, a plant which obtains a significant amount of water from the zone of saturated soil. A framework is also provided for the age and ecological dynamics of some major woodland taxa—Betula, Corylus, Ilex, evergreen and deciduous oaks, Ericaceae and Pinus. In addition, the natural status of several pollen taxa and local trends in biodiversity are discussed. We consider that the results of our work will have important implications for the understanding of the vegetation history in a floristically very rich area, with a noticeable diversity of woody taxa, and a relatively well preserved ecosystem structure.     

Metal Uptake and Distribution in Cultured Seedlings of Nerium oleander L. (Apocynaceae) from the Río Tinto (Huelva, Spain)

Nerium oleander L. (Apocynaceae) is a micro-nano phanerophyte that grows in the riverbanks of the Río Tinto basin (Southwest Iberian Peninsula). The waters and soils of the Río Tinto area are highly acidic and have high concentrations of heavy metals. In this environment, N. oleander naturally grows in both extreme acidic (EA) and less extreme acidic (LEA) water courses, excluding, and bioindicating certain metals. In this work, we compared and evaluated the accumulation preferences and capacities, the distribution and processes of biomineralization of metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Mg, Ca) in the first stages of growth of EA and LEA oleanders by means of inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive X-ray analyzer analysis. Seeds from both environments were grown and treated with a self-made solution simulating the most extreme red waters from the Río Tinto. LEA plants drastically reduces the metal uptake at the beginning, but later reactivates the uptake reaching concentration values in the same range as the EA plants. The results showed high Mn, Zn and Mg concentrations, accumulation of Fe and Cu in plants from both environments, differing from the metal concentrations of field-grown oleanders. Iron bioformations with traces of other metals were present inside and over epidermal cells and inside vascular cells of stems and roots. They were absent of leaves. The accumulation properties of N. oleander in its early stages of development make it a species to take in consideration in phytoremediation processes but optimized conditions are needed to ensure enough biomass production.     

The influence of ammonia on the growth and photosynthesis of Ruppia drepanensis Tineo from Doñana National Park (SW Spain)

In a laboratory experiment, Ruppia drepanensis Tineo seedlings from a brackish marsh in Southern Spain were grown at 20 and 30 °C, at three different nitrogen levels. These levels were obtained by the addition of a slow release fertilizer (23% NH₄NO₃ by weight) to a sediment mixture of sand and clay (3:1). Several morphometric parameters were recorded during the first five weeks of the experiment, and photosynthesis and respiration were measured after 7 weeks of growth. Results showed a significant reduction of growth and development with increasing nitrogen and temperature levels. Dark respiration increased strongly at high nitrogen levels. At the same time, net photosynthesis at 250 and 500 µE m^-2 s^-1, Pm, Km and LCP were not affected by either factor. We attribute these phenomena to ammonia toxicity, since relatively high total ammonia (NH₃ + NH_f4 ^p+) levels were found in the interstitial water.     

Ecology,morphology and physiology of Chroothece richteriana (Rhodophyta,Stylonematophyceae) in the highly calcareous Río Chícamo,south-east Spain

The ecology of Chroothece was studied in the highly calcareous Río Chícamo, south-east Spain, in order to explain its success there, but rarity elsewhere. The river, which originates mainly from an underground aquifer, has water with high conductivity, sulphate and nitrate but low phosphate concentrations, the latter mainly organic. Chroothece occurs in mats and in lobed colonies reaching 4 cm in the broadest dimension. The colony surface consists of one layer of cells, each of which is attached to a stalk, which dichotomizes when the cell divides; stalks often extend to the colony base. The central region of many mat cells and almost all colony cells has a yellow to orange-brown colour, associated with the numerous lipid droplets densely covering the surface of the pyrenoid and arms of the star-shaped chloroplast. Field material and laboratory isolates indicate that stalk formation occurs under moderate P limitation and both stalks and cell sheath show high phosphatase activities. This also occurred in a culture collection strain maintained for 30 years in a very P-rich medium, but then transferred to a moderately P-limiting medium (c. 0.9 mg l^?1). We suggest that colony formation is initiated by aggregation of motile cells following P pulses in the water. Comparisons are made with Rivularia, a competitor in this nitrate-rich river, in spite of being a N₂-fixer. One difference is that Chroothece cells lie at the periphery of the colonies and are therefore exposed to maximum sunlight, whereas Rivularia trichomes grow inside colonies with photoprotection by scytonemin. However, the ability to withstand heavy grazing pressure may be an especially important factor favouring Rivularia here.     

Status and extinction probabilities of great bustard (Otis tarda) leks in Andalucía,southern Spain

Great bustards (Otis tarda) commonly occur in isolated populations consisting of only a few tens of individuals. Knowing where these are, and understanding the factors affecting their persistence, is necessary to save this declining species. A census (Spring 1999) was therefore made of possible great bustard lek sites in Andalucía, southern Spain. Forty-six males and 79 females were observed and a total of 180 conservatively estimated for the areas we visited. These were distributed among five, possibly six, leks, but most (66–72%) were recorded at only two localities. Through interviews with local people we established that at least two, possibly three, leks had become extinct within the last two decades, and also learned of another lek of 50–70 birds in the north of the region. The precarious status of the four largest visited leks was demonstrated through computer simulation (VORTEX). This showed that under status quo conditions their likelihood of extinction within 100 years is 85–99%. Further simulations demonstrated the disastrous consequences of poaching with extinction probabilities of 95% reached in 8–70 years. However when a hypothetical management scheme was modelled the results were encouraging. In these simulations the number of chicks per female per year was increased from 0.14 to 0.18 and annual mortality of females was reduced from 7.5 to 5%. This resulted in extinction probabilities of only 20% within 100 years at the larger leks. Simple, practical conservation actions to enhance annual recruitment and increase female survival are suggested.     

Development and Structure of Eukaryotic Biofilms in an Extreme Acidic Environment,Río Tinto (SW,Spain)

An in situ colonization assay was performed to study the early stages of biofilm formation in Río Tinto (SW, Spain), an extremely acidic environment (pH ca. 2). Eukaryotic assemblages were monitored at monthly intervals for 1 year. Diversity, colonization rates, and seasonal variations were analyzed. Structural features of naturally grown biofilms were explored by light and scanning electron microscopy in backscattered electron mode. A total of 14 taxa were recognized as constituents of the eukaryotic assemblages. The eukaryotic communities were dissimilar at the different sampling sites. The lowest diversity was found at the most extreme locations, in terms of pH and heavy metal concentrations. The biofilms were mainly formed by species from the genera Dunaliella and Cyanidium. Two genera of filamentous algae, Zygnemopsis and Klebsormidium, were principally responsible for the variability in the cell number throughout the year. These species appear in June to decrease almost completely between October and November. In contrast, the number of heterotrophic flagellates and ciliates remained constant throughout the year. The microcolonization sequence showed an initial accumulation of amorphous particles composed of bacteria and inorganic grains of minerals. By the end of the second month, the organic matrix was also populated by fungi, bacteria, and a few eukaryotic heterotrophs such as amoebae and small flagellates. Diatoms only showed significant colonization in regions where mycelial matrices were first established. Flagellated green algae such as Dunaliella or Chlamydomonas as well as Euglena were also present at the very beginning of the biofilm development, although in low numbers (<100 cells cm^–2). After the flagellated cells, sessile species of algae such Chlorella or Cyanidium appeared. Filamentous algae were the last species to colonize the biofilms. Most of the naturally grown biofilms were found to be structures composed of different species organized in different layers separated, probably by extracellular polymeric substances, although more analysis should be done in this regard. The possible implications of the biofilm structure in the adaptation to this extreme habitat are discussed.     

Biological and biochemical quality of the Artemia (Anostraca: Artemiidae) population from Real de Salinas saltworks, Calkiní, Campeche, Mexico

Cysts of Artemia spp. collected from February 1997 to February 2000 in the Real de Salinas solar saltworks, Campeche, Mexico, were compared with Artemia franciscana (batch number 8,131 Microfeast Artemia Cysts, Texas, USA). The variables determined in these two populations were: number of cysts per gram, hatching percentage, hatching efficiency, hatching rate, hatching synchrony and hatching biomass, as well as diameter of the cysts and length of the nauplii (instar I). For Salinas, the average diameters of the encapsulated and decapsulated cysts were 230.5 +/- 4.14 and 221.8 +/- 3.39 microm, respectively. The thickness of the cyst shell was 4.35 +/- 0.68 microm and the length of the nauplii was 388.11 +/- 4.39 microm, this last value is among the smallest reported in the literature. For the commercial population of A. franciscana, the average diameters of the encapsulated and decapsulated cysts were 230.21 +/- 12.49 and 216.96 +/- 13.71, respectively. With respect to the corion thickness and length of the nauplii the values were 6.62 +/- 2.72 and 424.70 +/- 30.08, respectively. The protein value of the cysts (47.91 %) and nauplii (50.5 %) of Artemia population from Real de Salinas, are considered adequate to be used as food in aquaculture. The results indicate that the population from Real de Salinas presents positive features for its use in aquaculture in the region.     

An improved description of Strombidium sulcatum Claparède & Lachmann, 1859 (Ciliophora) from slides of Fauré-Fremiet, and a designation of type material

Strombidium sulcatum, the type species of the genus, is examined using silver-stained material made by Fauré-Fremiet in the 1950s and 1960s. We found that the stained specimens possessed a prominent protuberance, as previously described; the number of anterior polykinetids (APk) differed between the accounts (15 this study, 12 previous reports); although previously illustrated, no contractile vacuole was observed; and the macronuclear shape, position, and size differed from those previously reported. Our work provides the first detailed re-analysis of the silver-stained material of S. sulcatum. We use data on S. sulcatum to distinguish it from a morphologically similar species, Strombidium inclinatum. Type material for S. sulcatum has been deposited in the Natural History Museum, London.     

Redescription of Skrjabinodon medinae (García-Calvente, 1948) (Nematoda: Pharyngodonidae) from the cloaca of Podarcis pityusensis (Bosca, 1883) (Sauria: Lacertidae) of the Balearic Islands (Spain)

Pharyngodon medinae García-Calvente, 1948 (Nematoda: Pharyngodonidae) is redescribed from Podarcis pityusensis (Bosca, 1883) (Sauria: Lacertidae) of the Balearic Islands (Spain) and confirmed as a member of the genus Skrjabinodon Inglis, 1968. A systematic review of S. medinae and closely related species is also given. Parathelandros canariensis is referred to Skrjabinodon as a new combination and Parathelandros Magzoub et al., 1980 is dismissed as a junior homonym of Parathelandros Baylis, 1930.