Ex Situ Conservation Priorities for the Wild Relatives of Potato (Solanum L. Section Petota)

Crop wild relatives have a long history of use in potato breeding, particularly for pest and disease resistance, and are expected to be increasingly used in the search for tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Their current and future use in crop improvement depends on their availability in ex situ germplasm collections. As these plants are impacted in the wild by habitat destruction and climate change, actions to ensure their conservation ex situ become ever more urgent. We analyzed the state of ex situ conservation of 73 of the closest wild relatives of potato (Solanum section Petota) with the aim of establishing priorities for further collecting to fill important gaps in germplasm collections. A total of 32 species (43.8%), were assigned high priority for further collecting due to severe gaps in their ex situ collections. Such gaps are most pronounced in the geographic center of diversity of the wild relatives in Peru. A total of 20 and 18 species were assessed as medium and low priority for further collecting, respectively, with only three species determined to be sufficiently represented currently. Priorities for further collecting include: (i) species completely lacking representation in germplasm collections; (ii) other high priority taxa, with geographic emphasis on the center of species diversity; (iii) medium priority species. Such collecting efforts combined with further emphasis on improving ex situ conservation technologies and methods, performing genotypic and phenotypic characterization of wild relative diversity, monitoring wild populations in situ, and making conserved wild relatives and their associated data accessible to the global research community, represent key steps in ensuring the long-term availability of the wild genetic resources of this important crop.     

Partnering conservation actions. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Inter situ</Emphasis> solutions to recover threatened species in South West Western Australia

South West Western Australia has a rich endemic flora of global significance. The threats facing this floral diversity are increasing in type, severity and scale, demonstrated by the rising numbers of species threatened with extinction. In particular, the root-rot pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi is causing widespread destruction, threatening the survival of many of the region’s unique plants. In situ conservation of wild plants is considered the most essential component of a flora conservation program, but the ability to conserve some species adequately is often unachievable in the short term and urgent management intervention is required to prevent extinction. We present data on the status and management of wild populations of four threatened species from the region, including an ex situ program, and describe our efforts to bridge the gap between these two components. Such inter situ conservation recovery work enables monitoring of biological attributes, research into reproductive biology and collection of genetic material for further ex situ conservation, and provides the source of material for future restoration of wild populations.     

Orchid conservation in China from 2000 to 2020: Achievements and perspectives

We review achievements in the conservation of orchid diversity in China over the last 21 years. We provide updated information on orchid biodiversity and suggestions for orchid conservation in China. We outline national policies of biodiversity conservation, especially of orchid conservation, which provide general guidelines for orchid conservation in China. There are now approximately 1708 known species of Orchidaceae in 181 genera in China, including five new genera and 365 new species described over the last 21 years. The assessment of risk of extinction of all 1502 known native orchid species in China in 2013 indicated that 653 species were identified as threatened, 132 species were treated as data-deficient, and four species endemic to China were classified as extinct. Approximately 1100 species (ca. 65%) are protected in national nature reserves, and another ~66 species in provincial nature reserves. About 800 native orchid species have living collections in major botanical gardens. The pollination biology of 74 native orchid species and the genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure of 29 orchid species have been investigated at a local scale and/or across species distributions. The mycorrhizal fungal community composition has been investigated in many genera, such as Bletilla, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Cypripedium, and Dendrobium. Approximately 292 species will be included in the list of national key protected wild plants this year. Two major tasks for near future include in situ conservation and monitoring population dynamics of endangered species.     

Threatened and endemic species: are they good indicators of patterns of biodiversity on a national scale?

Endemic and/or threatened species are often targeted to set conservation priorities. It is tempting to assume that a reserve network focusing on these species will be an effective umbrella for overall species richness of a country. For South Africa and Lesotho we tested whether complementary networks selected for threatened and/or endemic bird species satisfactorily represent all bird species, both in terms of capturing areas where other species are present or areas where they are more abundant (and, presumably, more viable). We found that areas selected for threatened and endemic species perform considerably better than areas selected at random. However, they do not guarantee the representation of overall bird species diversity, particularly not in peak abundance locations. Although nationally threatened and endemic species are important conservation targets, our results indicate that reserve networks focusing solely on these species may not be sufficient to preserve overall species diversity in a country.     

CWRML: representing crop wild relative conservation and use data in XML

Background  

Crop wild relatives are wild species that are closely related to crops. They are valuable as potential gene donors for crop improvement and may help to ensure food security for the future. However, they are becoming increasingly threatened in the wild and are inadequately conserved, both in situ and ex situ. Information about the conservation status and utilisation potential of crop wild relatives is diverse and dispersed, and no single agreed standard exists for representing such information; yet, this information is vital to ensure these species are effectively conserved and utilised. The European Community-funded project, European Crop Wild Relative Diversity Assessment and Conservation Forum, determined the minimum information requirements for the conservation and utilisation of crop wild relatives and created the Crop Wild Relative Information System, incorporating an eXtensible Markup Language (XML) schema to aid data sharing and exchange.     

Conservation genetics of two island endemic Ribes spp. (Grossulariaceae) of Sardinia: survival or extinction?

Measuring levels of population genetic diversity is an important step for assessing the conservation status of rare or endangered plant species and implementing appropriate conservation strategies. Populations of Ribes multiflorum subsp. sandalioticum and R. sardoum, two endangered endemic species from Sardinia, representing the whole genus on the island, were investigated using ISSR and SSR markers to determine levels and structure of genetic variability in their natural populations. Results indicated medium to low genetic diversity at the population level: Nei's gene diversity for ISSR markers ranged from 0.0840 to 0.1316; the expected heterozygosity (H_E) for SSR ranged from 0.4281 to 0.7012. In addition, only one remnant population of R. sardoum showed a high level of inbreeding, in accordance with its very small size. Regarding the structure of the six R. sandalioticum populations, both principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) and STRUCTURE analysis of ISSR and SSR data highlighted low population structure, although two populations appeared to be clearly distinct from the others. The genetic pattern of the two taxa associated with their different ecological positions indicated resilience of R. sandalioticum populations in fresh and humid habitats and uncertain future resistance for the residual R. sardoum population in xeric calcareous stands. Hence, this study highlights the importance of an integrated conservation approach (genetic plus in situ and ex situ conservation studies/measures) for activating management programmes in these endemic and threatened taxa that can be considered as crop wild relatives of cultivated Ribes species.     

Gap analyses to support ex situ conservation of genetic diversity in Magnolia, a flagship group

Worldwide about one third of all plant species is estimated to be threatened with extinction. Plants are generally under-represented in conservation. However, the global strategy for plant conservation (GSPC) sets forth 16 targets to halt the current and continuing loss of plant diversity within a framework for actions at global, regional, national and local levels. Target 8 of the GSPC directs that at least 75 % of threatened plant species be present in ex situ collections by 2020, but this target is far from being met. By analyzing where gaps in ex situ collections and research exist relative to diversity hotspots of threatened species, it is possible to identify and prioritize action. We undertake a gap analysis of ex situ collection needs in the genus Magnolia, a relatively well-known and valuable genus. Results indicate three main areas of biodiversity (China, Vietnam and Colombia) for the endangered Magnolia taxa. The present paper provides a critical overview of recent conservation activities carried out in the genus Magnolia throughout the world, focusing on genetic diversity analyses of the species.     

Is there a future for the Cactaceae genera Copiapoa,Eriosyce and Eulychnia? A status report of a prickly situation

Many of Chile’s iconic cactus species are threatened by human activities and global change. In order to safeguard them from extinction, both in situ and ex situ conservation actions are urgently needed. In this paper, an overview is given of the in situ and ex situ conservation status of the mainly Chilean cactus genera Copiapoa, Eriosyce and Eulychnia, including a worldwide survey of living ex situ collections of the species of these genera. From our results, we can conclude that although the threats to Chile’s remarkable biodiversity are now recognized as an environmental problem, and efforts are underway to protect the threatened endemic flora, many of the most threatened species are currently not protected in situ. Although a higher percentage of living accessions of Copiapoa, Eriosyce and Eulychnia in ex situ collections are of known wild origin compared to results of previous studies on other plant groups, the number of available accessions is insufficient to adequately preserve the genetic diversity of the threatened species. Prospects to upscale both in situ and ex situ conservation of the studied genera are discussed.     

广西木论国家级自然保护区植物物种多样性初步研究

广西木论国家级自然保护区位于我国滇黔桂植物区和华南植物区的交错地带，是古北极与古热带两大植物区系交接过渡的中心地带，在我国生物多样性保护区域中占据不可替代的地位。为摸清广西木论国家级自然保护区植物物种多样性，该文基于历史文献整理、野外调查、标本采集和鉴定以及数据统计分析，对该保护区维管束植物物种多样性组成及其特点进行了研究。结果表明：(1)该区共有维管束植物1 735种，包括石松类和蕨类植物218种、种子植物1 517种，具有较丰富的维管束植物多样性组成以及较复杂的植物区系成分。(2)该区共有中国特有植物486种、广西特有植物56种、岩溶特有植物262种，具有显著的植物特有性。(3)该区共有国家重点保护野生植物68种、广西重点保护野生植物153种、我国极小种群野生植物4种、受威胁植物108种、列入《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》(CITES)附录植物144种，具有较高程度的植物珍稀濒危性。综上表明，该区是我国重要的岩溶植物基因库，具有极其重要的保护价值。该研究结果为自然保护区的建设和管理、植物保护和利用以及其他科研工作的开展提供了重要依据。     

A gap analysis methodology for collecting crop genepools: a case study with phaseolus beans

Background

The wild relatives of crops represent a major source of valuable traits for crop improvement. These resources are threatened by habitat destruction, land use changes, and other factors, requiring their urgent collection and long-term availability for research and breeding from ex situ collections. We propose a method to identify gaps in ex situ collections (i.e. gap analysis) of crop wild relatives as a means to guide efficient and effective collecting activities.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The methodology prioritizes among taxa based on a combination of sampling, geographic, and environmental gaps. We apply the gap analysis methodology to wild taxa of the Phaseolus genepool. Of 85 taxa, 48 (56.5%) are assigned high priority for collecting due to lack of, or under-representation, in genebanks, 17 taxa are given medium priority for collecting, 15 low priority, and 5 species are assessed as adequately represented in ex situ collections. Gap “hotspots”, representing priority target areas for collecting, are concentrated in central Mexico, although the narrow endemic nature of a suite of priority species adds a number of specific additional regions to spatial collecting priorities.

Conclusions/Significance

Results of the gap analysis method mostly align very well with expert opinion of gaps in ex situ collections, with only a few exceptions. A more detailed prioritization of taxa and geographic areas for collection can be achieved by including in the analysis predictive threat factors, such as climate change or habitat destruction, or by adding additional prioritization filters, such as the degree of relatedness to cultivated species (i.e. ease of use in crop breeding). Furthermore, results for multiple crop genepools may be overlaid, which would allow a global analysis of gaps in ex situ collections of the world''s plant genetic resources.     

Decreasing genetic diversity in wild and captive populations of endangered Itasenpara bittering (Acheilognathus longipinnis) in the Himi region,central Japan,and recommendations for conservation

Biodiversity is increasingly declining as a result of direct human impact and structural alteration of ecosystems resulting from changes in human life styles. Itasenpara bittering (Acheilognathus longipinnis), which has been maintained in floodplain and paddy fields, is a threatened cyprinid fish endemic to central Japan. To aid in the preservation of this species, information on genetic diversity and demographic variables in wild and captive populations was obtained using microsatellite DNA analysis. Temporal changes in genetic diversity and effective population size (N _e) tended to be relatively stable in the wild Moo River population, although lower values were detected in the wild Busshouji River population, suggesting an extremely high risk of extinction in the latter. Captive populations derived from the Busshouji River population demonstrated significant genetic divergence even among intrapopulational cohorts, suggesting the influence of genetic drift caused by geographic isolation and small population size. Active maintenance of genetic diversity in captive population is a necessary part of conservation programs, as are continuous addition of wild individuals and replacement of individuals among captive populations. In addition, increasing or maintaining suitable floodplain areas and artificial habitats such as paddy fields might contribute to the conservation of genetic diversity in the Itasenpara bittering.     

Population and genetic status of a critically endangered species in Korea, Euchresta japonica (Leguminosae), and their implications for conservation

The conservation status of Euchresta japonica Hook. f. ex Regel in Korea was investigated, with an emphasis on its genetic diversity. From field surveys, we obtained the only locality record for a wild population in Korea, which contained eight individuals. Genotyping was performed using nine microsatellite markers for all 20 remaining individuals, including those in ex situ collections. Among nine microsatellite loci that amplified within this group, five showed polymorphism with low hererozygosities, and a total of 12 multilocus genotypes were detected. Wild-specific alleles were detected in two individuals, and ex situ-specific alleles were detected in six individuals. Five individuals proved to have individual-specific alleles. The Korean population was also distinguished from the previously reported Japanese population by different alleles and higher diversity. To conserve this species more effectively in Korea, we recommend the following: (1) fencing the remaining wild population; (2) no relocation of wild individuals, as nine ex situ plants are already available; (3) complete ex situ conservation of all genetic diversity via clonal propagation of wild individuals; and (4) continuous protection and monitoring of the wild population.     

The contribution of the Millennium Seed Bank Project to <Emphasis Type="Italic">ex situ</Emphasis> plant conservation in Chile

For a long time in situ conservation has been the main approach used to protect Chilean plant diversity. However, due to the high level of endemism of its flora (50%) and an increasing human impact on wild areas, ex situ conservation has become an urgent requirement to avoid the extinction of plant populations and species. Since 2001, the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIA), Chile, has been working in partnership with the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, (Kew) through the Millennium Seed Bank Project (MSB) with the objective of conserving 20% of the Chilean flora as seeds in long-term storage. This seed conservation effort has focussed mainly on the endangered and endemic plants of the Chilean drylands. Towards the end of the first phase of the MSB some 1482 seed collections representing 850 species and subspecies have been collected and safely preserved in the INIA Seed Base Bank and duplicated at Kew. Almost 70% of the total species collected are endemic to Chile and several of them are endangered. Additionally, seed germination research has been conducted for nearly 400 species and seed collections have been used to propagate several threatened species. Germination protocols have been published and disseminated online. Over 4,500 herbarium vouchers have been collected, largely duplicated at Kew and at the national herbarium in Chile. As a result of the inputs of INIA and the MSB, collaboration has been extended to other national stakeholders, mainly for plant taxonomy and seed collecting. In this context two training courses have been run for 70 staff/students. This training has contributed to the raising of general awareness of the need for the long-term protection of Chilean plant diversity and to demonstrate the key role that ex situ seed conservation can play in meeting this need.     

Extinction Risks and the Conservation of Madagascar's Reptiles

Background

An understanding of the conservation status of Madagascar''s endemic reptile species is needed to underpin conservation planning and priority setting in this global biodiversity hotspot, and to complement existing information on the island''s mammals, birds and amphibians. We report here on the first systematic assessment of the extinction risk of endemic and native non-marine Malagasy snakes, lizards, turtles and tortoises.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Species range maps from The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species were analysed to determine patterns in the distribution of threatened reptile species. These data, in addition to information on threats, were used to identify priority areas and actions for conservation. Thirty-nine percent of the data-sufficient Malagasy reptiles in our analyses are threatened with extinction. Areas in the north, west and south-east were identified as having more threatened species than expected and are therefore conservation priorities. Habitat degradation caused by wood harvesting and non-timber crops was the most pervasive threat. The direct removal of reptiles for international trade and human consumption threatened relatively few species, but were the primary threats for tortoises. Nine threatened reptile species are endemic to recently created protected areas.

Conclusions/Significance

With a few alarming exceptions, the threatened endemic reptiles of Madagascar occur within the national network of protected areas, including some taxa that are only found in new protected areas. Threats to these species, however, operate inside and outside protected area boundaries. This analysis has identified priority sites for reptile conservation and completes the conservation assessment of terrestrial vertebrates in Madagascar which will facilitate conservation planning, monitoring and wise-decision making. In sharp contrast with the amphibians, there is significant reptile diversity and regional endemism in the southern and western regions of Madagascar and this study highlights the importance of these arid regions to conserving the island''s biodiversity.     

A comparative analysis of global, national, and state red lists for threatened amphibians in Brazil

The knowledge about the conservation status of species is an important data for conservation biology. Therefore, threatened species lists are a powerful tool for conservation planning and prioritization. Our objective is to compare the global, the national and state red lists of amphibians in Brazil. Threatened species were categorized according to their listing in one or several of these lists. We analyzed for true inconsistencies across lists in order to evaluate practical consequences of such incongruences on amphibian conservation in Brazil. We recorded a total of 61 threatened amphibian species in Brazil (across all red lists). Only one species, Phrynomedusa fimbriata, was listed as Extinct (both in IUCN, Brazil and S?o Paulo lists). A total of eleven endemic species are listed as threatened by the global red list, but do not appear in Brazil’s national red list, which represent an inconsistence among these lists. Besides that, the threat category of Thoropa lutzi and Thoropa petropolitana, two endemic species, differ among both lists, which also represents a problem between both lists. These mismatches may be due to several reasons such as different interpretation of the criteria; different methodologies used; different data availability on species; differences in the dates of assessments processes; the assessors’ attitudes to uncertainty; outdated red lists. Harmonization among red lists permits a better picture of threatened amphibian diversity across scales and to develop global, national and state plans to complement conservation actions in order to maximize the chance of success of these initiatives.     

Conservation of medicinal plants of Western Ghats,India and its sustainable utilization through <Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis> technology

Climate change, alien species, and use of land for intensive farming and development are causing severe threat to the plant genetic diversity worldwide. Hence, conservation of biodiversity is considered fundamental and also provides the livelihoods to millions of people worldwide. Medicinal plants play a key role in the treatment of a number of diseases, and they are only the source of medicine for majority of people in the developing world. The tropical regions of the world supply the bulk of current global demand for “natural medicine,” albeit with increasing threat to populations in the world and its genetic diversity. India is a major center of origin and diversity of crop and medicinal plants. India poses out 20,000 species of higher plants, one third of it being endemic and 500 species are categorized to have medicinal value. The Western Ghats is one of the major repositories of medicinal plants. It harbors around 4,000 species of higher plants of which 450 species are threatened. Currently, the number of species added to the red list category in this region is increasing, and the valuable genetic resources are being lost at a rapid rate. Demand for medicinal plants is increasing, and this leads to unscrupulous collection from the wild and adulteration of supplies. Providing high-quality planting material for sustainable use and thereby saving the genetic diversity of plants in the wild is important. During the last 25 years of intensive research, Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute has developed in vitro protocol for rapid regeneration and establishment of about 40 medicinally important rare and threatened plants of Western Ghats. In situ conservation alone would not be effective in safeguarding these important species. Thus, utilizing the biotechnoligical approach to complement ex situ conservation program is becoming vital. Propagating biotechnology tools in plant conservation program is a prerequisite to succeed in sustainable use and to complement the existing ex situ measures. In addition to propagation, storage of these valuable genetic resources is equally important. In vitro slow growth of 35 species and cryopreservation using embryo/meristem/seed in 20 different species of rare medicinal plants of this region is accomplished. Plants developed in vitro of ten medicinal plants, which have restricted distribution, were reintroduced in the natural habitat as well.     

A new species of solanum section petota (Solanaceae) from northern Peru

Solanum guzmanguense. is a new species, of the wild potato alliance endemic in northern Peru. Its nearest relationships are with a small cluster of species restricted to southern Bolivia and northern Argentina.     

Genetic diversity and structure of the critically endangered tree Dimorphandra wilsonii and of the widespread in the Brazilian Cerrado Dimorphandra mollis: Implications for conservation

We performed a comparative analysis of the genetic diversity and structure of two congeneric tree species, one critically endangered, with only 21 known individuals in the wild, Dimorphandra wilsonii, and the other widely distributed Dimorphandra mollis. Eight populations of D. mollis and all known trees of D. wilsonii, from three areas, were screened for variability with ISSR markers. Percentage of polymorphic bands, Nei's gene diversity and Shannon's index were considerably lower in D. wilsonii (P = 40.0%, h = 0.124 and I = 0.190), as compared to D. mollis (P = 70.4%, h = 0.190 and I = 0.297). Bayesian clustering showed that D. wilsonii individuals are clustered in three populations, which had high differentiation among them. Several measures for their conservation were suggested: protection of all extant populations, ex situ conservation of seeds, production of saplings in nurseries and foundation of new populations in reserve areas.     

Genetic diversity and population structure of the medicinal orchid Gastrodia elata revealed by microsatellite analysis

The wild resources of Gastrodia elata are currently threatened with extinction due to over-harvesting because of their high medicinal value. Genetic diversity plays a key role in the survival of endangered orchid species. In this study we investigated the genetic pattern in eight microsatellite loci within eight G. elata populations from central China. Compared with the other orchids, G. elata showed a low level of genetic variation within populations (H_E = 0.356–0.622). The main factors responsible for the genetic pattern were the plant's inbreeding system due to mating within clone patches, and the genetic bottlenecks and genetic drift caused by a long-history over-collecting. The significant heterozygote deficit was detected in all the populations. The F statistics calculated by different approaches consistently revealed a clear genetic differentiation among populations, contributing about 20% of the total gene diversity. The results are discussed in relation to both in situ and ex situ conservation efforts of the species. The populations with a high level of genetic diversity or with great genetic distinction were identified, which should be a high priority for conservation managers.     

Fine-scale spatial genetic structure of Dalbergia nigra (Fabaceae), a threatened and endemic tree of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The Atlantic Forest is one of the most diverse ecosystems in the world and considered a hotspot of biodiversity conservation. Dalbergia nigra (Fabaceae) is a tree endemic to the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, and has become threatened due to overexploitation of its valuable timber. In the present study, we analyzed the genetic diversity and fine-scale spatial genetic structure of D. nigra in an area of primary forest of a large reserve. All adult individuals (N = 112) were sampled in a 9.3 ha plot, and genotyped for microsatellite loci. Our results indicated high diversity with a mean of 8.6 alleles per locus, and expected heterozygosity equal to 0.74. The co-ancestry coefficients were significant for distances among trees up to 80 m. The Sp value was equal to 0.017 and indirect estimates of gene dispersal distances ranged from 89 to 144 m. No strong evidence of bottleneck or effects of human-disturbance was found. This study highlights that long-term efforts to protect a large area of Atlantic Forest have been effective towards maintaining the genetic diversity of D. nigra. The results of this study are important towards providing a guide for seed collection for ex-situ conservation and reforestation programmes of this threatened species.