基于 HS-SPME/GC-MS 分析山茶品种‘克瑞墨大牡丹’花器官香气成分简

采用顶空固相微萃取法（HS-SPME）提取了山茶品种‘克瑞墨大牡丹’不同花器官自然挥发的花香挥发油,并用气相色谱—质谱联用仪（GC-MS）分析了花香成分。分别从整花、花瓣、雄蕊中检测到了89、80、21种化合物。花香成分主要由萜类、芳香族化合物、脂肪族化合物等组成,其中以单萜中的芳樟醇相对含量最高,以下依次为顺式氧化芳樟醇、水杨酸甲酯、十四烷等。花瓣和雄蕊中花香成分有较大差别,芳樟醇在花瓣和雄蕊中均占首位,相对含量分别为15.12%和63.97%,雄蕊缺乏烷烃和芳香烃。同一朵花所有花瓣的花香绝对挥发量是所有雄蕊的3倍以上,但质量相同时雄蕊的挥发量却明显高于花瓣,表明花瓣和雄蕊对‘克瑞墨大牡丹’的花香具有同样重要的贡献。     

锦带花属2个新品种

描述了2个锦带花属新品种,即贵妃锦带（Weigela florida ‘Royal’）和宝石锦带(Weigela florida‘Ruby’)。二者相近似,区别在于贵妃锦带植株稍高,株高1.5～2.0 m,花为尖晶玉红色,叶色暗绿;宝石锦带植株较矮,株高1.0～1.6 m,花为丹紫红色,叶片金黄色。这2个新品种均具有观赏特异性,抗逆性强,花期早且长等特性。     

Origin and Genetic Diversity of Aromatic Rice Varieties, Molecular Breeding and Chemical and Genetic Basis of Rice Aroma

Aroma is an important quality attribute of rice and is a key determinant of its market value. Among the different groups of aromatic rice varieties ‘Basmati’ from the Indian subcontinent and ‘Jasmine’ from Thailand occupy prime position in the international market. In addition, there are a large number of premium short-grain aromatic rice varieties cultivated by farmers in India and South-East Asia that have not been fully commercially utilised as yet. The origin and evolution of aromatic rice varieties is being unravelled by application of genomic tools. The common alleles of aroma gene seem to have their origin in the aromatic group of rice varieties native to the Sub-Himalayan region. Of more than two hundred volatile compounds present in the rice grain, 2-acetyl-l-pyrolline (2-AP) is considered as the key aroma compound present in almost all the aromatic rice varieties. However, there is significant variation in the type and intensity of aroma in the different groups of aromatic rice varieties suggesting involvement of additional chemical compounds in varying proportions. Studies have been undertaken to understand the genetics of rice aroma and to map the genes or quantitative trait loci (QTL) controlling aroma expression. Of the three mapped aroma QTL, qaro8.1 located on rice chromosome S is the most significant and it represents a non-functional allele of BADH2 gene coding for enzyme betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase. Functional allele of the BADH2 gene makes rice non-aromatic. Similarly, specific alleles of BADH1 gene located on rice chromosome 4 within the aroma QTL qaro4.1 show association with the aromatic rice varieties. The gene underlying QTL qaro3.1 on chromosome 3 has not yet been deciphered. Functional molecular markers have been developed for the major aroma QTL on chromosome S and marker-assisted breeding for high yielding aromatic rice varieties is now a reality. To safeguard the reputation of Basmati rice an international code of practice has been developed where DNA markers help check the purity of commercial samples. There is need to use advanced genomic and metabolomic approaches to further study the minor genes controlling rice aroma and understand the variation in type, intensity and stability of rice aroma. It is also required to improve the production and marketing of short grain aromatic rice varieties.     

Emitted and endogenous floral scent compounds of Prunus mume and hybrids

Prunus mume is the only species of Prunus known to produce a strong floral fragrance. Most interspecific hybrids between P. mume and other species of Prunus lack the fragrance. The analysis of variations in emitted and endogenous compounds among genetically close cultivars is a powerful approach for revealing the mechanisms underlying floral scent emission. Compounds emitted by flowers from five cultivars were collected using the static headspace method, and endogenous compounds in the flowers were extracted with ethyl acetate. Samples were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The result showed that benzenoids were the dominant compounds, of which benzyl acetate was the principal component contributing to the floral scent of P. mume. A clustering analysis of the floral volatiles from the different cultivars suggested that the scent traits of hybrids are related to the taxonomic relationship between their parents. The correlations between the amount of the endogenous and emitted compounds revealed that benzyl acetate had a stronger tendency to be volatile than the other compounds and the volatilisation rate of volatile compounds varied greatly among different cultivars. The importance of the biosynthetic pathway and the function of benzaldehyde are discussed.     

The expression level of anthocyanidin synthase determines the anthocyanin content of crabapple (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Malus</Emphasis> sp.) petals

In addition to contributing to the coloration of plant organs and their defense against herbivores, the consumption of anthocyanins in the human diet has a number of health benefits. Crabapple (Malus sp.) represents a valuable experimental model system to research the mechanisms and regulation of anthocyanin accumulation, in part due to the often vivid and varied petal and leaf coloration that is exhibited by various cultivars. The enzyme anthocyanidin synthase (ANS) plays a pivotal role in anthocyanin biosynthesis; however, the relationship between ANS expression and petal pigmentation has yet to be established in crabapple. To illuminate the mechanism of anthocyanin accumulation in crabapple petals, we evaluated the expression of two crabapple ANS allelic genes (McANS-1 and McANS-2) and the levels of anthocyanins in petals from cultivars with dark red (‘Royalty’) and white (‘Flame’) petals, as well as another (‘Radiant’) whose petals have an intermediate pink color. We determined that the expression of McANS in the three cultivars correlated with the variation of anthocyanin accumulation during different petal developmental stages. Furthermore, transgenic tobacco plants constitutively overexpressing one of the two McANS genes, McANS-1, had showed elevated anthocyanin accumulation and a deeper red coloration in their petals than those from untransformed control lines. In conclusion, we propose that McANS are responsible for anthocyanin accumulation during petal coloration in different crabapple cultivars.     

Dynamic trajectories of volatile and non‐volatile specialised metabolites in ‘overnight’ fragrant flowers of Murraya paniculata

• Ephemeral flowers, especially nocturnal ones, usually emit characteristic scent profiles within their post‐anthesis lifespans of a few hours. Whether these flowers exhibit temporal variability in the composition and profile of volatile and non‐volatile specialised metabolites has received little attention.
• Flowers of Murraya paniculata bloom in the evenings during the summer and monsoon, and their sweet, intense fragrance enhances the plant's value as an ornamental. We aimed to investigate profiles of both volatile and non‐volatile endogenous specialised metabolites (ESM) in nocturnal ephemeral flowers of M. paniculata to examine whether any biochemically diverse groups of ESM follow distinct patterns of accumulation while maintaining synchrony with defensive physiological functions.
• Targeted ESM contents of M. paniculata flowers were profiled at ten time points at 2‐h intervals, starting from late bud stage (afternoon) up to the start of petal senescence (mid‐morning). Emitted volatiles were monitored continuously within the whole 20‐h period using headspace sampling. The ESM contents were mapped by time point to obtain a highly dynamic and biochemically diverse profile. Relative temporal patterns of ESM accumulation indicated that the active fragrance‐emitting period might be divided into ‘early bloom’, ‘mid‐bloom’ and ‘late bloom’ phases. Early and late bloom phases were characterised by high free radical generation, with immediate enhancement of antioxidant enzymes and phenolic compounds. The mid‐bloom phase was relatively stable and dedicated to maximum fragrance emission, with provision for strong terpenoid‐mediated defence against herbivores. The late bloom phase merged into senescence with the start of daylight; however, even the senescent petals continued to emit fragrance to attract diurnal pollinators.
• Our study suggests that dynamic relations between the different ESM groups regulate the short‐term requirements of floral advertisement and phytochemical defence in this ephemeral flower. This study also provided fundamental information on the temporal occurrence of emitted volatiles and internal pools of specialised metabolites in M. paniculata flowers, which could serve as an important model for pollination biology of Rutaceae, which includes many important fruit crops.

     

Electrophysiological and behavioral responses of Asian and European honeybees to pear flower volatiles

Honeybee pollination behavior is influenced by flower volatiles, which honeybees sense via olfactory receptors. Honeybees are only weakly attracted to pear flowers. To investigate the potential reasons, we extracted and determined the floral volatile compounds from three pear cultivars (Su, Ya, and Xuehua) using headspace solid-phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The effects of pear flower volatiles on the Asian honeybee (Apis cerana cerana Fabricius) and the European honeybee (Apis mellifera ligustica Spinola) were determined by electroantennogram (EAG) assays and behavioral tests in a three-arm olfactometer. Among the 76 flower volatiles detected with GC–MS, 21 were found in all three pear cultivars, accounting for approximately 70% of the total volatile content. 3-Methyl-1-butanol and (+)-limonene volatiles had the highest relative content. Five compounds elicited strong EAG responses in both bee species: 2-methylbutyraldehyde, 1-nonanal, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, 3-methyl-1-butanol, and (+)-limonene. Neither bee species showed positive taxis to these volatiles. In behavioral tests, A. mellifera ligustica showed a low preference for 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (20%, 400 µg/µL) and 2-phenethyl alcohol (16.7%, 400 µg/µL). Apis cerana cerana showed a low preference for 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (6.7%, 400 µg/µL) and 1-nonanal (10%, 400 µg/µL), whereas its preferences for 3-methyl-1-butanol (43.3%, 400 µg/µL) and α-farnesene (40%, 400 µg/µL) were similar to that for the control. Therefore, a lack of attractive volatile compounds could explain why honeybees are only weakly attracted to pear flowers. Therefore, to achieve acceptable pollination in pear orchards, we suggest using flower-scent sugar syrup feeding and a saturation pollination strategy.     

七种秋石斛鲜花挥发性成分差异性分析

为查明秋石斛不同品种关键赋香成分,利用固相微萃取(SPME)方法结合GC-MS技术,测定了秋石斛5个具香气的品种,即绿天使(Dendrobium Hand Green)、日出2号(Dendrobium Burana Sunrise No.2)、白花607(Dendrobium K.B.White 607)、紫背256(Dendrobium Blue Sapphine 256)、魅力(Dendrobium Burana Charming)以及2个不具香气的品种,即红牛(Dendrobium Red Bull)、三亚阳光(Dendrobium Sunya Sunshine)盛花期的花朵挥发性成分及其相对含量。结果表明:共鉴定出45种挥发性化合物,其中萜烯类34种、芳香族化合物8种、酯类3种,5种具香气的秋石斛花朵所含挥发性成分绝大部分都是萜烯类,萜烯类对秋石斛的花香起着重要的作用。通过比较发现,5种具香气秋石斛的主要赋香成分为3-蒈烯、芳樟醇、α-可巴烯和α-法尼烯,不同品种挥发性成分的组成和含量明显不同。绿天使和日出2号的主要香气成分是3-蒈烯,相对含量分别为59.343%和77.775%,但日出2号中的释放率约为绿天使的3倍;白花607主要香气成分为3-蒈烯(29.170%)、α-可巴烯(17.660%)、芳樟醇(10.990%);紫背256中α-法尼烯相对含量最高(42.310%);魅力中主要香气成分是α-可巴烯(33.648%),邻苯二甲酸二异丁酯(13.866%)为其次。2个不具香气品种中鉴定出化合物较少,主要挥发性成分释放率较小;红牛主要挥发性成分是胡莫柳酯(28.118%),三亚阳光是异丁子香酚(27.529%)。这些主要挥发性成分对不同品种秋石斛花的特有香味起决定性作用,且大部分已被广泛应用于香精香料,医药,日化等产品中。该研究结果为香型秋石斛产品开发及品种的培育提供了参考。     

Early colonization of Protea flowers enable dominance of competitively weak saprobic fungi in seed cones,benefitting their hosts

Sporothrix and Knoxdaviesia fungi use pollinators to colonize Protea flowers at anthesis. These saprobes remain dominant in the nutrient-rich, fire-retardant Protea seed-cones (infructescences) for at least a year after flowering. We tested the hypothesis that they competitively exclude potentially detrimental fungi from infructescences during this time. We compared seed set and longevity of infructescences containing Sporothrix and Knoxdaviesia vs. those that contain ‘contaminant’ saprobes. Hereafter we evaluated their competitive abilities against the ‘contaminant’ saprobes. Infructescences devoid of Sporothrix and Knoxdaviesia were dominated by Penicillium cf. toxicarium, Cladosporium cf. cladosporoides and Fusarium cf. anthophilum. Sporothrix and Knoxdaviesia presence did not affect seed viability, but infructescences persisted longer than those colonised by ‘contaminant’ fungi. The ‘contaminant’ species were stronger competitors than Sporothrix and Knoxdaviesia. However, Sporothrix and Knoxdaviesia could defend captured space well against ‘contaminant’ species. This effect was enhanced when fungal taxa grew on media prepared from their usual Protea host species, clarifying their dominance and host consistency observed in the field. Sporothrix and Knoxdaviesia from Protea are therefore weak competitors against common saprobes, especially when growing on alternative hosts, and need to colonise flowers very early (before colonization by other fungi) to dominate in this environment. They may delay seed release from infructescences longer than if these are colonised by other saprobes, increasing chances of seed release to occur after fire, when conditions are more favourable for Protea recruitment.     

Flower color diversity revealed by differential expression of flavonoid biosynthetic genes and flavonoid accumulation in herbaceous peony (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.)

Herbaceous peony (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.) is an important ornamental plant which contains different flower colors. In this paper, eight genes encoding phenylalanine ammonialyase (PAL), chalcone synthase (CHS), chalcone isomerase (CHI), flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H), flavonoid 3′-hydroxylase (F3′H), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR), anthocyanidin synthase (ANS), UDP-glucose: flavonoid 3-o-glucosyltransferase (UF3GT) were isolated. Moreover, the expression patterns of these eight genes and UF5GT in the flowers were investigated in three cultivars, that is, ‘Hongyanzhenghui’, ‘Yulouhongxing’ and ‘Huangjinlun’ with purplish-red, white and yellow flower respectively. Furthermore, flavonoid accumulation in the flowers was also analyzed. The results showed that in different organs, most of genes expressed higher in flowers than in other organs. During the development of flowers, all genes could be divided into four groups. The first group (PlPAL) was highly expressed in S1 and S4. The second group (PlCHS and PlCHI) was at a high expression level throughout the whole developmental stages. The third group (PlF3H, PlF3′H, PlDFR, PlANS and PlUF5GT) gradually decreased with the development of flowers. The fourth group (PlUF3GT) gradually increased during the flower development. In addition, anthoxanthins and anthocyanins were detected in ‘Hongyanzhenghui’ and ‘Yulouhongxing’, chalcones and anthoxanthins were found in ‘Huangjinlun’. When different color flowers were concerned, low expression level of PlCHI induced most of the substrate accumulation in the form of chalcones and displaying yellow, changing a small part of substrates to anthoxanthins, and there was no anthocyanin synthesis in ‘Huangjinlun’ because of low expression level of DFR. In ‘Yulouhongxing’, massive expressions of upstream genes and low expression of DFR caused synthesis of a great deal of anthoxanthins and a small amount of colorless anthocyanins. In ‘Hongyanzhenghui’, a large number of colored anthocyanins were changed from anthoxanthins because of PlDFR, PlANS and PlUF3GT high expressions. These results would provide us a theoretical basis to understand the formation of P. lactiflora flower colors.     

遮光处理对两种观赏栀子开花特性及挥发物的影响

为了探索遮光处理对栀子开花特性及挥发性成分的影响规律,为观赏栀子的科学配植及挥发物的调控提供理论依据。该研究以大花栀子(Gardenia jasminoides var. grandiflora)和小叶栀子(Gardenia jasminoides var．radicans)为试材,经过5个不同遮光CK₁(全光照对照,无遮阳)、CK₂(疏林遮阳,杜仲树下,遮光率为80%)、T₁(1层1针遮阳网,遮光率为60%)、T₂(1层2针遮阳网,遮光率为70%)和T₃(2层2针遮阳网,遮光率为90%)处理后,观测其开花特性(花期、开花时长、花量、开放率和花形态特征),并采集鲜花,利用SPME GC MS(固相微萃取 气相色谱/质谱联用)技术,对两种栀子花的挥发性成分及相对含量进行测定。结果表明：(1)适当的遮光可以使两种栀子花花期提前,但对开花时长没有明显影响,重度的遮光会使两种栀子花花期延迟,开花时长缩短;两种栀子花的CK₁处理的花苞数和正常花数在5个处理中均最高,但CK₁与T₁的开放率没有明显差异,且均高于其他处理。(2)两种栀子花的花径/蕾长都随着遮光率的增加而减少,且花的开合程度随着遮光程度的增加而降低。(3)大花栀子共测出了4大类26种化合物,主要化合物有α 法呢烯、3 蒈烯、(E) Hex 3 enyl (E) 2 methylbut 2 enoate和乙酸芳樟酯;小叶栀子共测出4大类23种物质,主要化合物有3 蒈烯、惕各酸叶醇酯、苯酸甲酯和(3E,7E) 4,8,12 Trimeth yltrideca 1,3,7,11 tetraene。(4)两种栀子均在CK₁处理下的香气成分种类最多,并随着遮光率的增加而减少,但其中萜烯类物质的相对含量随着遮光率的增加先增加后减少,酯类物质的相对含量随着遮光率的增加先减少后增加。研究认为,遮光对这两个不同品种的栀子植物的开花特性有一定的影响,且在他们挥发物成分和相对含量上的影响更为显著。在实际园林植物配置中,建议将观赏栀子种植在适度遮光的环境下,如落叶疏叶的乔木下,尽量避免种植在强光和重度遮光的环境中。     

Invasiveness potential of Miscanthus sinensis: implications for bioenergy production in the United States

Miscanthus sinensis (Anderss.) is a perennial grass species that has been grown widely as an ornamental since the late 1800s and is now being considered for bioenergy production in the United States. With its ability to be grown from seed and tolerate cold climates, this species offers practical advantages over current cultivars of the higher‐yielding hybrid species, M.×giganteus. Yet a large‐scale release of M. sinensis for bioenergy production in colder northern regions could result in new invasions into natural areas. We show, with reference to historical records and data collected in six wild US populations of M. sinensis in 2009, that ornamental varieties of this species have a long history of localized escape in the Eastern United States, primarily within the Appalachian region. To prevent further escape and gene flow, we recommend the development of sterile or functionally sterile varieties of M. sinensis or the restriction of its usage as a donor of genetic material to new sterile cultivars of M. ×giganteus. Other appropriate precautions for new biomass varieties include experimental demonstration of low invasiveness in the target region ahead of commercial production, along with postintroduction stewardship programs.     

Chemical Diversity of Volatile Compounds of Mints from Southern Part of Pannonian Plain and Balkan Peninsula – New Data

Mints are the most popular economic and traditional herbs. The aim of this article was chemical characterization of volatile compounds from wild populations of Mentha aquatica, M. arvensis, M. longifolia, M. microphylla, M. pulegium, M. spicata, M.×dumetorum, M.×gentillis and M.×verticillata, as well as cultivated samples of M. spicata, M.×piperita ‘Alba’ and M.×piperita ‘Crispa’. Analyses were performed directly from dried aerial parts (herb) of collected samples by headspace gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry. In total 54 compounds were detected, representing from 89.99 % to 99.66 % of volatile fractions of all investigated samples. The recorded volatiles were primarily monoterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated monoterpenes, while oxygenated aromatic monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and aliphatic compounds were present in lower concentrations in analyzed samples. The major components were linalool, limonene, 1,8‐cineol, α‐terpinyl acetate, pulegone, β‐pinene and menthol. The cluster analysis revealed five main groups or chemotypes according to qualitative and quantitative content of volatiles, as well as similarities among samples. These results contribute to the knowledge on the mints chemistry in Pannonian Plain and Balkan Peninsula.     

Flower Volatiles,Crop Varieties and Bee Responses

Pollination contributes to an estimated one third of global food production, through both the improvement of the yield and the quality of crops. Volatile compounds emitted by crop flowers mediate plant-pollinator interactions, but differences between crop varieties are still little explored. We investigated whether the visitation of crop flowers is determined by variety-specific flower volatiles using strawberry varieties (Fragaria x ananassa Duchesne) and how this affects the pollination services of the wild bee Osmia bicornis L. Flower volatile compounds of three strawberry varieties were measured via headspace collection. Gas chromatography showed that the three strawberry varieties produced the same volatile compounds but with quantitative differences of the total amount of volatiles and between distinct compounds. Electroantennographic recordings showed that inexperienced females of Osmia bicornis had higher antennal responses to all volatile compounds than to controls of air and paraffin oil, however responses differed between compounds. The variety Sonata was found to emit a total higher level of volatiles and also higher levels of most of the compounds that evoked antennal responses compared with the other varieties Honeoye and Darselect. Sonata also received more flower visits from Osmia bicornis females under field conditions, compared with Honeoye. Our results suggest that differences in the emission of flower volatile compounds among strawberry varieties mediate their attractiveness to females of Osmia bicornis. Since quality and quantity of marketable fruits depend on optimal pollination, a better understanding of the role of flower volatiles in crop production is required and should be considered more closely in crop-variety breeding.     

The Effect of CmLOXs on the Production of Volatile Organic Compounds in Four Aroma Types of Melon (Cucumis melo)

Lipoxygenases (LOXs) play important role in the synthesis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which influence the aroma of fruit. In this study, we elucidate that there is a positive relationship between LOXs activity and VOC production in melon (Cucumis melo), and CmLOX genes are involved in fruit aroma generation in melon. To this end, we tested four aroma types of melon that feature a thin pericarp: two aromatic cultivars of the oriental melons (C. melo var. makuwa Makino), ‘Yu Meiren’ (YMR) and ‘Cui Bao’ (CB); a non-aromatic oriental pickling melon (C. melo var. conomon), ‘Shao Gua’ (SHAO); and a non-aromatic snake melon (C. melo L. var. flexuosus Naud), ‘Cai Gua’ (CAI). A principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the aromas of SHAO and CAI are similar in nature because their ester contents are lower than those of YMR and CB. Ethyl acetate, benzyl acetate, (E, Z)-2, 6-nonadienal and menthol are four principal volatile compounds that affect the aromatic characteristics of these four types of melons. The LOX activity and total ester content in YMR were the highest among the examined melon varieties. The expression patterns of 18 CmLOX genes were found to vary based on the aromatic nature of the melon. Four of them were highly expressed in YMR. Moreover, we treated the fruit disks of YMR with LOX substrates (linoleic acid and linolenic acid) and LOX inhibitors (n-propyl gallate and nordihydroguariaretic acid). Substrate application promoted LOX activity and induced accumulation of hexanal, (2E)-nonenal and straight-chain esters, such as ethyl acetate. In contrast, LOX inhibitors decreased the levels of these compounds. The effect of CmLOXs in the biosynthesis of esters in melons are discussed.     

基于主成分分析法的墨兰品种观赏价值评价

以福州地区栽培多年的30个墨兰品种为材料,对其植株高、花色、瓣型等20个观赏性状进行测定和观察,分析墨兰品种观赏性状的变异范围、性状间的相关性以及主成分因子,并利用主成分分析法对30个墨兰品种的观赏价值进行评价。结果表明,不同品种间的16个数量性状均存在不同程度的变异,花部形态存在较大差异,叶片形态和数量变异小;4个质量性状中,花色和叶艺的遗传多样性较高。叶部形态和花部形态的观赏性状间存在显著相关性。20个观赏性状指标可以分为7个主成分因子,分别为株高因子、瓣型因子、花色因子、叶片数因子、花径因子、叶宽因子和叶艺因子,7个主成分因子的方差贡献率累计达全部性状信息的87.35%。通过计算30个品种的重要主成分值并对其进行排序,筛选出4个观赏性状优良的品种,分别为‘白墨’、‘宝山爪’、‘龙梅’和‘金华山’。     

The Fast-track breeding approach can be improved by heat-induced expression of the FLOWERING LOCUS T genes from poplar (Populus trichocarpa) in apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.)

The Fast-track breeding approach in apple is based on the utilization of the BpMADS4 gene from Betula pendula. However, this approach has several disadvantages which could be solved using other flowering inducing genes and inducible promoters. The FLOWERING LOCUS T genes (PtFT1 and PtFT2) from poplar (Populus trichocarpa) driven by the heat-inducible Gmhsp 17.5-E (HSP)-promoter from soybean (Glycine max) were transferred into apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) cv. ‘Pinova’ in order to induce flowering. Seven transgenic apple lines were obtained. All transgenic apple lines micrografted onto ‘Golden Delicious’ seedlings used as rootstocks were transferred to the greenhouse. Six out of seven transgenic lines developed flowers after a heat treatment at 42 °C for 1 h daily over a period of 28 days. The transgenic line T836 failed to flower. Flower morphology and pollen vitality of transgenic lines appeared normal. Transgenic plants were successfully used for hybridizations. Pollen from Malus ×robusta 5 applied to flowers of transgenic plants resulted in fruit formation. Heat induced PtFT1, respectively PtFT2 over-expressing rootstocks did not cause flowering in micrografted non-transgenic ‘Pinova’ scions. The mRNA of the PtFT genes was transported from transgenic rootstocks to non-transgenic scions only in one case. As a balance between plant development and flowering is important for the production of early flowering plants usable for a fast-track breeding program the new approach based on heat-induced flowering could be a refinement of the fast breeding program using the possibility of turning-on-turning-off flowering in physiological well developed plants.     

Induced mutation in β-CAROTENE HYDROXYLASE results in accumulation of β-carotene and conversion of red to orange color in pepper fruit

Pepper fruit is typically red, but green, orange and yellow cultivars are gaining consumer acceptance. This color variation is mainly due to variations in carotenoid composition. Orange color in pepper can result from a number of carotenoid profiles, but its genetic basis is only partly known. We identified an EMS-induced orange-fruited mutant using the wild-type blocky red-fruited cultivar ‘Maor’ as progenitor. This mutant accumulates mainly β-carotene in its fruit, instead of the complex pattern of red and yellow carotenoids in ‘Maor’. We identified an A⁷⁰⁹ to G transition in the cDNA of β-CAROTENE HYDROXYLASE2 in the orange pepper and complete co-segregation of this single-nucleotide polymorphism with the mutated phenotype. We therefore hypothesized that β-CAROTENE HYDROXYLASE2 controls the orange mutation in pepper. Interestingly, the expression of β-CAROTENE HYDROXYLASE2 and additional carotenogenesis genes was elevated in the orange fruit compared with the red fruit, indicating possible feedback regulation of genes in the pathway. Because carotenoids serve as precursors for volatile compounds, we compared the volatile profiles of the two parents. The orange pepper contained more volatile compounds than ‘Maor’, with predominant elevation of norisoprenoids derived from β-carotene degradation, while sesquiterpenes predominated in the red fruit. Because of the importance of β-carotene as a provitamin A precursor in the human diet, the orange-fruited mutant might serve as a natural source for pepper fruit biofortification. Moreover, the change in volatile profile may result in a fruit flavor that differs from other pepper cultivars.