Conflicts between humans over wildlife management: on the diversity of stakeholder attitudes and implications for conflict management

Conflicts involving wildlife are, in essence, often conflicts between human parties with differing wildlife management objectives. However, the study and management of wildlife conflicts often focuses on the ecological context without addressing disagreements between people over these objectives. This research uses quantitative approaches to examine actors’ views on a complex wildlife-related conflict: a raptor of conservation concern that impacts on game-bird management. Four dominant elements of the debate emerged from initial semi-structured interviews: perceptions of conflict related issues; perceptions of each other; perceived barriers to consensus within the debate; and assessment of proposed practical management solutions. A quantitative survey that built on these elements demonstrates the degree to which perceptions differ between groups and how local variation in these elements may be obscured in a regional or national level debate. The findings emphasise the importance of understanding the social issues involved in wildlife related conflicts if management aims are to be agreed and achieved.     

State and management of wetlands in Bangladesh

Wetlands are a vital link between land and water in Bangladesh. A majority of the people of Bangladesh are critically dependent on wetlands. In this paper, the values of wetlands, causes and effects of wetlands degradation, as well as the present wetlands management approach, are analyzed and recommendations for wetlands management are suggested based on participatory rural appraisal (PRA), field visit, personal experience, and existing literature and information. Wetlands play a crucial role in maintaining the ecological balance of ecosystems, but wetlands habitat of Bangladesh is under constant threat due to increase of population, intensive agriculture, overfishing, siltation, pollution, ill-planned infrastructures, lack of institutional coordination, lack of awareness, etc. As a result biodiversity is reducing, many species of flora and fauna are threatened, wetlands-based ecosystem is degenerating, and the living conditions of local people are deteriorating as livelihoods, socioeconomic institutions, and cultural values are affected. Wetlands management is not addressed separately in water management activities of Bangladesh. In order to balance human needs and wetlands conservation, a mainly community-based wetlands management approach has been taken in Bangladesh, but this is not enough to prevent the degradation of wetlands. Therefore, Bangladesh now needs a comprehensive strategy combining political, economic, social, and technological approaches to stop further degradation of wetlands. Therefore, wetlands management should be incorporated into a system of integrated land and water use and, indeed, into the socioeconomic system of the country. Policies, strategies, and management plans for sustainable use and conservation of wetlands of Bangladesh must be based on solid knowledge and understanding of their ecological and socioeconomic functions and processes.     

Feral pig population structuring in the rangelands of eastern Australia: applications for designing adaptive management units

Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) are an invasive species in Australia. Their negative impact on conservation values has been demonstrated, and they are controlled in many areas in the rangelands of Australia. However, they are usually controlled over small, often ad hoc management units (MUs), and previous research has revealed that these MUs can be inadequate. Understanding feral pig population structuring can aid in the design of appropriate MUs. This study documents an approach to improving MUs for feral pig control in the rangelands of Australia. Feral pigs from a 500,000 km² region were genotyped with 13 polymorphic markers. Genetic analyses were used to identify population structure. Identified sub-populations were then related to geographical and environmental gradients with geographical information systems, regression analysis and with canonical correspondence analysis. Five sub-populations were identified. These were moderately differentiated, with relatively high-migration rates. Two sub-populations in drier, lower elevation areas overlapped, due to extensive migration, probably along the large, inland rivers and flood plains. Sub-populations in higher rainfall environments appeared less likely to migrate. Sub-population differentiation was also dependant on distance, indicating isolation by distance was present. A case study applying an adaptive MU to a previously controlled area is presented. Generally, however, MUs for feral pig control for natural resource protection and endemic disease eradication in the rangelands should take into account geographical size, but also geographic features, especially major rivers in low-rainfall areas.     

Population genomics as a new tool for wildlife management

Admixture and introgression have varied effects on population viability and fitness. Admixture might be an important source of new alleles, particularly for small, geographically isolated populations. However, admixture might also cause outbreeding depression if populations are adapted to different ecological or climatic conditions. Because of the emerging use of translocation and admixture as a conservation and wildlife management strategy to reduce genetic load (termed genetic rescue), the possible effects of admixture have practical consequences ( Bouzat et al. 2009 ; Hedrick & Fredrickson 2010 ). Importantly, genetic load and local adaptation are properties of individual loci and epistatic interactions among loci rather than properties of genomes. Likewise, the outcome and consequences of genetic rescue depend on the fitness effects of individual introduced alleles. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Miller et al. (2012) use model‐based, population genomic analyses to document locus‐specific effects of a recent genetic rescue in the bighorn sheep population within the National Bison Range wildlife refuge (NBR; Montana, USA). They find a subset of introduced alleles associated with increased fitness in NBR bighorn sheep, some of which experienced accelerated introgression following their introduction. These loci mark regions of the genome that could constitute the genetic basis of the successful NBR bighorn sheep genetic rescue. Although population genomic analyses are frequently used to study local adaptation and selection (e.g. Hohenlohe et al. 2010 ; Lawniczak et al. 2010 ), this study constitutes a novel application of this analytical framework for wildlife management. Moreover, the detailed demographic data available for the NBR bighorn sheep population provide a rare and powerful source of information and allow more robust population genomic inference than is often possible.     

Ecotourism for the survival of sea turtles and other wildlife

This paper discusses generally why humans should bother to conservesea turtles. In doing so, it considers both economic and non-economic reasonsand outlines threats to the existence of sea turtles and ways in which tourismmay either contribute to the conservation or decline of their populations.Turtle-based ecotourism at Mon Repos in southern Queensland is described. As aresult of a survey conducted by the authors, it is shown that turtle-basedecotourism at Mon Repos has positive social (indirect) consequences for theconservation of sea turtles. Furthermore, it is argued that ecotourismoperations at Mon Repos have positive direct impacts on the sustainability ofpopulations of sea turtles. However, using a simple model, it is emphasised thatthis impact is limited because turtles are migratory. A model is also developedto capture the possible relationship between turtle populations and thesustainability of ecotourism dependent on turtle populations, and is extended toother wildlife species. Significant interdependence exists between thesustainability of these two variables. The theory is related toCiriacy-Wantrup's social safe minimum conservation standard forspecies' survival.     

Ecological function losses caused by monotonous land use induce crop raiding by wildlife on the island of Yakushima,southern Japan

Mass production is a logical outcome of price competition in a capitalist economy. It has resulted in the need for large-scale logging and planting of commercial crops. However, such monotonous land use, or monoculture, has damaged various ecological functions of forests and eroded the beneficial public service provided by forests. In Japan, the most widespread monotonous land use is associated with coniferous plantations, the expansion of which was encouraged by Forest Agency policies from 1958 that were aimed at increasing wood production. By 1986, half of all forested lands had been transformed into single-species conifer plantations. These policies may damage the ecological functions of forests: to provide stable habitats for forest wildlife. In particular, food supplies for wildlife have fluctuated greatly after several decades of logging. Some species have therefore changed their ecology and begun to explore novel environments proactively in order to adapt to such extreme fluctuations. Such species have started to use farmlands that neighbor the plantations. In this sense, crop raiding by wildlife can be regarded as a negative result of monotonous land use due to the loss of ecological functions. Therefore, habitat management to rehabilitate ecological functions and to reorganize the landscape will be required in order to resolve the problem of crop raiding by wildlife. This study examines crop raiding by Japanese deer (Cervus nippon) and monkeys (Macaca fuscata) on the island of Yakushima, which typifies crop-raiding situations in Japan.     

Managing private,commercial rangelands for agricultural production and wildlife diversity in Namibia and Zambia

The private game industry has grown across Africa since the mid-20th century. While considerable research has documented wildlife production on commercial land in many eastern and southern African countries, few studies have focused specifically on the integration of livestock and game production in Namibia and Zambia. This paper reports a survey of 43 commercial conservancy members in Namibia and 23 game farmers in Zambia conducted between September 2004 and June 2005. The survey was based on inductive sampling theory and queried farmers on how they have integrated wildlife production into their management practices. Farmers in each country reported considerable integration of wildlife conservation and agricultural production. Namibian farmers reported substantial problems with bush encroachment, whereas none of their Zambian counterparts raised similar complaints. This paper describes the state of rangeland management on commercial farms in Namibia and Zambia and identifies important areas where further research can contribute to the enhancement of this conservation-production system.     

A review of effective interventions for reducing aggression and violence

This paper addresses the question of whether individual violence can be reduced in frequency or severity, if so to what extent and by which methods. It opens with a brief overview of the nature of personal violence and discussion of some key definitional and methodological problems. However, its principal focus is on the findings obtained from a series of meta-analytic reviews of structured programmes for adolescents and adults who have shown repeated aggression or been convicted of personal violence, drawing together the results of studies conducted in prison, probation, youth justice and allied services. Additional results are considered from a systematic review of studies of violence prevention among offenders with mental disorders. This incorporates the preliminary findings of a meta-analysis of controlled trials of psychosocial interventions with that population. Overall, it is concluded that there is sufficient evidence currently available to substantiate the claim that personal violence can be reduced by psychosocial interventions, but that much more research is required to delineate the parameters of effectiveness in this context. Proposals are made for future investigations with reference to the theoretical understanding of causal relationships and the design of experimental trials.     

Monitoring for management of conservation and recreation in Australian protected areas

Protected areas are key to conservation of biodiversity, and Australia is one of the world’s megadiverse regions. Monitoring programs provide the information to assess the state of conservation resources, the severity of threats and the success of management responses. Here we compare the management priorities, monitoring priorities and actual monitoring practices of protected area management agencies in Australia, using four sets of data at continental scale and five at a more restricted regional scale. We track changes over a period of several years and focus at successively finer levels of detail. At both continental and regional scales, most management plans emphasise fire, invasive species and visitor management; and most monitoring programmes refer to visitor numbers and impacts as well as species and ecosystems. There is only a weak match, however, between reported management priorities and actual monitoring programmes; and the effectiveness of management responses is rarely monitored. The level of detail in visitor monitor programmes varies considerably: most parks count visitors, but few know what those visitors do. Threats from fire and invasive species receive more attention that those from recreation. At regional scale, the proportion of parks with defined monitoring programmes and priorities increased significantly from 2003/2004 to 2006/2007. Whilst only a proportion of protected areas monitor endangered species populations, for those that do this is the parameter reported in most detail, with many parks reporting single records of single individuals. Some parks also maintain anecdotal records of rare species outside routine monitoring programs.     

The practice and principles of community-based wildlife management in Zimbabwe: the CAMPFIRE programme

This paper describes Zimbabwe's wildlife-based CAMPFIRE programme. It suggests that community-based natural resource management is a potential solution to the inter-linked problems of poverty and conservation if it is based on sound management principles that also incorporate transparency, accountability and democracy because the unit of management is a community.This first section suggests that many of the causes of these natural resource problems in communal lands are a result of the failure of mechanisms to price and allocate resources efficiently. The second section describes the evolution of CAMPFIRE, while the third section summarizes the principles that underpin the programme. The fourth section discusses the governance of natural resources and describes the process by which rights to wildlife have been devolved. This emphasizes how important political and administrative systems are to wildlife conservation. CAMPFIRE can be viewed as a five-step process: getting an enabling political, legal, administrative and economic environment; creating awareness and a demand for the programme; generating revenues; using these revenues effectively; and, finally, setting in place the institutions and capacity for locally-based natural resource management. The first four sections of the paper deal with step on — the enabling environment, what it is and how it came about. The final section describes the actual implementation of the programme and is rather brief.     

Implications of partial immunity on the prospects for tuberculosis control by post-exposure interventions

One-third of the world population (approximately 2 billion individuals) is currently infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the vast majority harboring a latent infection. As the risk of reactivation is around 10% in a lifetime, it follows that 200 million of these will eventually develop active pulmonary disease. Only therapeutic or post-exposure interventions can tame this vast reservoir of infection. Treatment of latent infections can reduce the risk of reactivation, and there is accumulating evidence that combination with post-exposure vaccines can reduce the risk of reinfection. Here we develop mathematical models to explore the potential of these post-exposure interventions to control tuberculosis on a global scale. Intensive programs targeting recent infections appear generally effective, but the benefit is potentially greater in intermediate prevalence scenarios. Extending these strategies to longer-term persistent infections appears more beneficial where prevalence is low. Finally, we consider that susceptibility to reinfection is altered by therapy, and explore its epidemiological consequences. When we assume that therapy reduces susceptibility to subsequent reinfection, catastrophic dynamics are observed. Thus, a bipolar outcome is obtained, where either small or large reductions in prevalence levels result, depending on the rate of detection and treatment of latent infections. By contrast, increased susceptibility after therapy may induce an increase in disease prevalence and does not lead to catastrophic dynamics. These potential outcomes are silent unless a widespread intervention is implemented.     

Template for developing guidelines for the evaluation of the clinical efficacy of psychophysiological interventions

An essential function of both the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback (AAPB) and the Society for Neuronal Regulation (SNR) is the systematic evaluation of psychophysiological interventions that have been developed for the treatment of medical and psychiatric disorders. In order to address scientific concerns regarding the efficacy of specific clinical applications of biofeedback, these two societies formed and Efficacy Task Force. The process to be used in the assessment of treatment efficacy, specificity and clinical utility is presented in the form of a template that will serve as the foundation for a series of scientific reviews and practice guidlines to be published by both societies.     

Efficacy and acceptability of pharmacological,psychosocial, and brain stimulation interventions in children and adolescents with mental disorders: an umbrella review

Top‐tier evidence on the safety/tolerability of 80 medications in children/adolescents with mental disorders has recently been reviewed in this jour­nal. To guide clinical practice, such data must be combined with evidence on efficacy and acceptability. Besides medications, psychosocial inter­ventions and brain stimulation techniques are treatment options for children/adolescents with mental disorders. For this umbrella review, we systematically searched network meta‐analyses (NMAs) and meta‐analyses (MAs) of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating 48 medications, 20 psychosocial interventions, and four brain stimulation techniques in children/adolescents with 52 different mental disorders or groups of mental disorders, reporting on 20 different efficacy/acceptability outcomes. Co‐primary outcomes were disease‐specific symptom reduction and all‐cause discontinuation (“acceptability”). We included 14 NMAs and 90 MAs, reporting on 15 mental disorders or groups of mental disorders. Overall, 21 medications outperformed placebo regarding the co‐primary outcomes, and three psychosocial interventions did so (while seven outperformed waiting list/no treatment). Based on the meta‐analytic evidence, the most convincing efficacy profile emerged for amphetamines, methylphenidate and, to a smaller extent, behavioral therapy in attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder; aripiprazole, risperidone and several psychosocial interventions in autism; risperidone and behavioral interventions in disruptive behavior disorders; several antipsychotics in schizophrenia spectrum disorders; fluoxetine, the combination of fluoxetine and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and interpersonal therapy in depression; aripiprazole in mania; fluoxetine and group CBT in anxiety disorders; fluoxetine/selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, CBT, and behavioral therapy with exposure and response prevention in obsessive‐compulsive disorder; CBT in post‐traumatic stress disorder; imipramine and alarm behavioral intervention in enuresis; behavioral therapy in encopresis; and family therapy in anorexia nervosa. Results from this umbrella review of interventions for mental disorders in children/adolescents provide evidence‐based information for clinical decision making.     

Advantages and limitations of Internet‐based interventions for common mental disorders

Several Internet interventions have been developed and tested for common mental disorders, and the evidence to date shows that these treatments often result in similar outcomes as in face‐to‐face psychotherapy and that they are cost‐effective. In this paper, we first review the pros and cons of how participants in Internet treatment trials have been recruited. We then comment on the assessment procedures often involved in Internet interventions and conclude that, while online questionnaires yield robust results, diagnoses cannot be determined without any contact with the patient. We then review the role of the therapist and conclude that, although treatments including guidance seem to lead to better outcomes than unguided treatments, this guidance can be mainly practical and supportive rather than explicitly therapeutic in orientation. Then we briefly describe the advantages and disadvantages of treatments for mood and anxiety disorders and comment on ways to handle comorbidity often associated with these disorders. Finally we discuss challenges when disseminating Internet interventions. In conclusion, there is now a large body of evidence suggesting that Internet interventions work. Several research questions remain open, including how Internet interventions can be blended with traditional forms of care.     

Community‐based social interventions for people with severe mental illness: a systematic review and narrative synthesis of recent evidence

People living with severe mental illness (SMI) are one of the most marginalized groups in society. Interventions which aim to improve their social and economic participation are of crucial importance to clinicians, policy‐makers and people with SMI themselves. We conducted a systematic review of the literature on social interventions for people with SMI published since 2016 and collated our findings through narrative synthesis. We found an encouragingly large amount of research in this field, and 72 papers met our inclusion criteria. Over half reported on the effectiveness of interventions delivered at the service level (supported accommodation, education or employment), while the remainder targeted individuals directly (community participation, family interventions, peer‐led/supported interventions, social skills training). We identified good evidence for the Housing First model of supported accommodation, for the Individual Placement and Support model of supported employment, and for family psychoeducation, with the caveat that a range of models are nonetheless required to meet the varied housing, employment and family‐related needs of individuals. Our findings also highlighted the importance of contextual factors and the need to make local adaptations when “importing” interventions from elsewhere. We found that augmentation strategies to enhance the effectiveness of social interventions (particularly supported employment and social skills training) by addressing cognitive impairments did not lead to transferable “real life” skills despite improvements in cognitive function. We also identified an emerging evidence base for peer‐led/supported interventions, recovery colleges and other interventions to support community participation. We concluded that social interventions have considerable benefits but are arguably the most complex in the mental health field, and require multi‐level stakeholder commitment and investment for successful implementation.     

Participatory appraisal for potential community-based mangrove management in East Africa

Mangroves are among the most threatened ecosystems in the world and the coastal forests of East Africa are no exception to this trend. Although conservation, rehabilitation and sustainable management plans have been developed in various tropical regions, only a few locally based approaches have been launched along the Indian Ocean coast of Africa. In order to identify possible conditions for sustainable management of mangroves based on socio-economic and ecological considerations, we present a participatory approach designed to evaluate the relationships between mangroves and human activities and the use of multi-criterion analysis to identify management solutions. To achieve this goal, all the subjects involved in mangrove management (local communities, institutions and researchers) took an active part in the process. The research was carried out in three communities relying on mangrove swamps: Kisakasaka village on the island of Zanzibar, Mida Creek in Kenya, both relying on mangrove forests known to be endangered by over-exploitation, and Inhaca Island in Mozambique, where mangroves are more pristine. Families were the hub of the research and the importance of each of their economic activities was assessed. We then examined the methods by which mangroves are exploited by the local community and by other stakeholders working in the study areas. Our results show that the mangroves in Inhaca are exploited only for household needs and the pressure on the forests is still ecologically sustainable. In contrast, there is a well-established demand for mangrove products in Kisakasaka and Mida Creek and the mangroves represent an essential source of income for the families, resulting in an ecologically unsustainable rate of exploitation. Therefore, possible alternatives to the current management practices were identified in the two areas by means of a participatory approach. Multi-criterion analysis was then used to compare and discuss the alternatives in terms of social, economic and ecological criteria.     

Integrating evidence-based treatments for common mental disorders in routine primary care: feasibility and acceptability of the MANAS intervention in Goa,India

Common mental disorders, such as depression and anxiety, pose a major public health burden in developing countries. Although these disorders are thought to be best managed in primary care settings, there is a dearth of evidence about how this can be achieved in low resource settings. The MANAS project is an attempt to integrate an evidence based package of treatments into routine public and private primary care settings in Goa, India. Before initiating the trial, we carried out extensive preparatory work, over a period of 15 months, to examine the feasibility and acceptability of the planned intervention. This paper describes the systematic development and evaluation of the intervention through this preparatory phase. The preparatory stage, which was implemented in three phases, utilized quantitative and qualitative methods to inform our understanding of the potential problems and possible solutions in implementing the trial and led to critical modifications of the original intervention plan. Investing in systematic formative work prior to conducting expensive trials of the effectiveness of complex interventions is a useful exercise which potentially improves the likelihood of a positive result of such trials.     

The effect of treatment on pathogen virulence

The optimal virulence of a pathogen is determined by a trade-off between maximizing the rate of transmission and maximizing the duration of infectivity. Treatment measures such as curative therapy and case isolation exert selective pressure by reducing the duration of infectivity, reducing the value of duration-increasing strategies to the pathogen and favoring pathogen strategies that maximize the rate of transmission. We extend the trade-off models of previous authors, and represents the reproduction number of the pathogen as a function of the transmissibility, host contact rate, disease-induced mortality, recovery rate, and treatment rate, each of which may be influenced by the virulence. We find that when virulence is subject to a transmissibility-mortality trade-off, treatment can lead to an increase in optimal virulence, but that in other scenarios (such as the activity-recovery trade-off) treatment decreases the optimal virulence. Paradoxically, when levels of treatment rise with pathogen virulence, increasing control efforts may raise predicted levels of optimal virulence. Thus we show that conflict can arise between the epidemiological benefits of treatment and the evolutionary risks of heightened virulence.     

Application of sperm sorting and associated reproductive technology for wildlife management and conservation

Efforts toward the conservation and captive breeding of wildlife can be enhanced by sperm sorting and associated reproductive technologies such as sperm cryopreservation and artificial insemination (AI). Sex ratio management is of particular significance to species which naturally exist in female-dominated social groups. A bias of the sex ratio towards females of these species will greatly assist in maintaining socially cohesive groups and minimizing male-male aggression. Another application of this technology potentially exists for endangered species, as the preferential production of females can enable propagation of those species at a faster rate. The particular assisted reproductive technology (ART) used in conjunction with sperm sorting for the production of offspring is largely determined by the quality and quantity of spermatozoa following sorting and preservation processes. Regardless of the ART selected, breeding decisions involving sex-sorted spermatozoa should be made in conjunction with appropriate genetic management. Zoological-based research on reproductive physiology and assisted reproduction, including sperm sorting, is being conducted on numerous terrestrial and marine mammals. The wildlife species for which the technology has undergone the most advance is the bottlenose dolphin. AI using sex-sorted fresh or frozen-thawed spermatozoa has become a valuable tool for the genetic and reproductive management of captive bottlenose dolphins with six pre-sexed calves, all of the predetermined sex born to date.