Phylogeography of the last surviving populations of Rhodian and Anatolian fallow deer (Dama dama dama L., 1758)

The European fallow deer ( Dama dama dama ) is one of the most widespread cervids, and its distribution has been heavily affected by man. At present, only one wild autochthonous population is reputed to survive in Anatolia, but its census size is dramatically decreasing. This means that a significant portion of the ancestral genetic diversity of this taxon is seriously threatened. In the present study, a portion of the mitochondrial DNA (D-loop) in 37 D. d. dama specimens from three Mediterranean sites, Turkey, the island of Rhodes (Greece), and the Italian Peninsula, and seven individuals of the Persian fallow deer, Dama dama mesopotamica , was sequenced, and the results from the data analysis are interpreted in light of current archaeozoological and biogeographical knowledge. We conclude that: (1) D. d. mesopotamica is strongly differentiated from D. d. dama , confirming the results of previous genetic studies and (2) the Rhodian populations of D. d. dama , founded by humans in Neolithic times, possess a set of mitochondrial lineages, found in no other study populations. The persistence of these haplotypes is particularly significant because human-mediated processes (e.g. domestication) usually result in genetic depletion and erosion of an ancestral genetic pool. In the case of the Rhodes' population of fallow deer, we hypothesize that, during the foundation of this population, humans unknowingly preserved a remarkable portion of the original genetic diversity of the source population(s).  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 93 , 835–844.     

Genetic structure of introduced European fallow deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Dama dama dama</Emphasis>) in Tasmania,Australia

European fallow deer are an introduced species classified as partly protected wildlife in Tasmania, Australia. Current management practices are primarily governed under the Quality Deer Management regime, in which animals are harvested during designated hunting seasons. Among populations, prominent morphological differences have been reported; however, the genetic relationship of these populations has until now been poorly understood. Representative animals were sampled from three key areas across their range and genotyped at ten polymorphic microsatellite loci to investigate genetic diversity, population structure, and genetic bottlenecks. Allelic richness was low in all three populations and ranged between 2.20 and 2.49 alleles/locus. A genetic bottleneck was detected in two of the three populations (P < 0.001). Population differentiation was evident between Lake Echo and Benham (q = 0.122; P < 0.001) and Benham and Connorville (q = 0.110; P < 0.001), but not between Lake Echo and Connorville (q = 0.0235), with individuals being identified as belonging to two genetic clusters. The pattern of population differentiation from the three study populations suggests that deer from the western region of their range are genetically distinct to those from the eastern region. This correlates with morphological variation within Tasmanian fallow deer, in which differences between the regions maybe attributable to geographical barriers.     

Effects of immunocontraception on behavior in fallow deer (Dama dama)

Immunocontraceptives can control growth in wild and captive populations; however, in doing so, they should not disrupt species‐typical behavior patterns. The presence of treated females could disrupt social interactions in a population; yet, few studies have examined effects of immunocontraception on behavior. The goal of this project was to determine whether behavior in a fallow deer (Dama dama) population vaccinated with porcine anti‐zona pellucida (pZP)‐immunocontraceptives differed from behavior in a population of unvaccinated deer. We predicted that pZP‐treated females would spend a higher percentage of time exhibiting mating and dominance behavior than nontreated females, and that males interacting with pZP‐treated females would spend a higher percentage of time demonstrating mating and aggressive behavior than males interacting with nontreated females. We recorded activity budgets of males and females in two fallow deer populations, one pZP‐treated and the other untreated, before, during, and after rut. Females did not differ in time spent displaying mating or dominance behavior compared to nontreated females. Males coexisting with nontreated females spent more time exhibiting aggressive behavior during rut than males living with pZP‐treated females, but males did not differ in time spent in mating behavior. Thus, immunocontraception did not seem to affect behavior adversely. However, sample sizes, living conditions, and sex ratios may have affected the results. Given these limitations, future research is needed to confirm our findings. Zoo Biol 27:49–61, 2008. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Molecular identification of two Sarcocystis species in fallow deer (Dama dama) from Lithuania

Due to the lack of molecular research conducted, little is known about Sarcocystis species diversity in the fallow deer (Dama dama). Until now, Sarcocystis jorrini and Sarcocystis morae were described to form sarcocysts in the muscles of this host. In the present study diaphragm muscle samples of free-ranging fallow deer from Lithuania were investigated for Sarcocystis species. Sarcocysts were detected in 39 out of 48 (81.3%) fallow deer examined. Under a light microscope two types of sarcocysts having hair-like and finger-like protrusions were observed. Based on DNA sequence analysis of cox1 and 18S rDNA, two species, S. morae and Sarcocystis entzerothi were identified. In prior studies, the latter species was only detected in Lithuanian roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and in sika deer (Cervus nippon). The haplotype network of S. morae sequences specified close relationships between haplotypes found in the same country. According to current knowledge, the fallow deer is characterised by low Sarcocystis species richness as compared with other cervid species from Europe.     

Foot infections associated with Arcanobacterium pyogenes in free-living fallow deer (Dama dama)

We describe foot infection associated with Arcanobacterium pyogenes in three adult male free-living fallow deer (Dama dama) from Sueve Regional Hunting Reserve (Principality of Asturias, Spain). Affected fallow deer were culled in November 1997 and 1998 during the hunting season. Necropsy, radiography, and microbiologic analysis were carried out for each animal. Unilateral swelling of one extremity at the coronary band was observed in all three cases. Areas of bone loss, severe periosteal reaction, and soft tissue swelling were seen on radiography. Lead fragments were observed in one fallow deer. Seven bacterial species were isolated, but only Arcanobacterium pyogenes was routinely found. Weather conditions in the area (mild temperatures and high humidity), the land (alternating pasture land and rock), the animal population density (both fallow deer and domestic herds of cows, horses, sheep, and goats, live side by side in the same areas), and hunting activities could be related to the frequency of these infections.     

Experimental tests of copying and mate choice in fallow deer (Dama dama)

In fallow deer (Dama dama), as well as in other lek-breedingungulates, receptive females arriving at leks commonly joinmales that are defending large harems. This tendency enhancesdifferences in harem size and mating success between males.It could occur because females independendy move to the samemales, because females are attracted to males with females,or because females are attracted to each other. Using controlledexperiments with estrous female fallow deer, we show that, althoughfemales are more attracted to males with harems than to thosewithout, they are as frequently attracted to groups of femaleswithout a male as to female groups with males. We conclude thatfemale fallow deer joining leks are attracted to each otherand copy each other's movements. As yet, there is no firm evidencein fallow deer or in other lek-breeding ungulates that femalescopy each other's choice of mating partners. Key words: Damadama, fallow deer, lek breeding, mate choice, copying behavior.[Behav Ecol 4: 191–193 (1993)]     

Inter-specific competition from fallow deer Dama dama reduces habitat quality for the Italian roe deer Capreolus capreolus italicus

The roe deer of Mediterranean habitats in the central and southern parts of Italy has recently been recognised as a distinct subspecies, Capreolus capreolus italicus . A population of this endangered subspecies has been monitored in the Preserve of Castelporziano, near Rome, since 1988. We observed an abrupt population decline in 2000, which may severely threaten the sustainability of this population. We evaluated the hypothesis that competition by fallow deer may be a principal cause of this decline. By a new and innovative methodology, we modelled the spatial distribution of fallow deer density (FDD) in the study area to show that 1) habitat quality for roe deer was an inverse function of FDD, 2) habitat apportionment between fallow and roe deer increased as a function of FDD and – by applying structural equation modelling – 3) FDD was superior to habitat composition in explaining observed variations in home range size and probably in habitat quality for roe deer. This analysis is the first to document that inter-specific competition may influence the spatial behaviour of a deer species leading to poor phenotypic performance in the inferior competitor. We conclude that the conservation of this relict population would benefit by reducing fallow deer numbers at Castelporziano and from other measures aimed to decrease the level of inter-specific competition.     

Mortality of fallow deer (Dama dama) experimentally-infected with meningeal worm, Parelaphostrongylus tenuis.

Six fallow deer (Dama dama) fawns died after receiving 25 to 150 infective larvae of Parelaphostrongylus tenuis. Fawns given higher doses usually died sooner (6 to 23 days) than those given lower doses (54 to 67 days). Early deaths were associated with severe acute peritonitis resulting from perforation of the intestinal wall; later deaths were associated with paralysis and inability to rise. Numerous adult P. tenuis were found within neural tissues of the brain and spinal cord in the three fawns with paralysis. One white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) exposed to infective larvae from the same source survived infection without exhibiting clinical signs and began passing larvae in feces 88 days post-exposure. At the doses used in this study, meningeal worm caused fatal infections in fallow deer. Results are compared to published observations of fallow deer naturally-infected with P. tenuis.     

Identification of pregnancy-associated glycoproteins and alpha-fetoprotein in fallow deer (Dama dama) placenta

Background

This paper describes the isolation and characterization of pregnancy-associated glycoproteins (PAG) from fetal cotyledonary tissue (FCT) and maternal caruncular tissue (MCT) collected from fallow deer (Dama dama) pregnant females. Proteins issued from FCT and MCT were submitted to affinity chromatographies by using Vicia villosa agarose (VVA) or anti-bovine PAG-2 (R#438) coupled to Sepharose 4B gel. Finally, they were characterized by SDS-PAGE and N-terminal microsequencing.

Results

Four distinct fallow deer PAG (fdPAG) sequences were identified and submitted to Swiss-Prot database. Comparison of fdPAG with PAG sequences identified in other ruminant species exhibited 64 to 83% identity. Additionally, alpha-fetoprotein was identified in fetal and maternal tissues.

Conclusion

Our results demonstrate the efficacy of VVA and bovine PAG-2 affinity chromatographies for the isolation of PAG molecules expressed in deer placenta. This is the first report giving four specific amino acid sequences of PAG isolated from feto-maternal junction (FCT and MCT) in the Cervidae family.     

Suckling time and fawn growth in fallow deer (Dama dama)

The total suckling time and the fawns' absolute increase in weight from birth to weaning were studied in a group of fallow deer over two consecutive calving seasons. The aim was to clarify the use of suckling time as a predictor of parental input in fallow deer. When all subjects from both years are taken into account, no positive relation between suckling time and growth was found. This was due to at least two important factors: (i) fawns to primiparous mothers sucked relatively longer, with no corresponding increase in weight, compared to multiparous mothers; and (ii) suckling time during the first two weeks after birth seems to be an inadequate measure of milk transfer.     

Rumen Ciliates of White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Axis Deer (Axis axis), Sika Deer (Cervus nippon) and Fallow Deer (Dama dama) from Texas

Samples of rumen contents from 33 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), 31 axis deer (Axis axis), 26 sika deer (Cervus nippon), and 25 fallow deer (Dama dama) were collected from four study areas in central Texas. The geometric mean concentration of total protozoa was 50.2 x 10(4) per ml, with no differences between species (P > 0.36). White-tailed deer had a higher percentage of Entodinium and lower percentage of Diplodiniinae (P < 0.01) than the other deer species, which were not different from each other. Occurrence of Epidinium, Isotricha, and Dasytricha was sporadic and did not differ among deer species. Numerous new host records of protozoan species were observed: white-tailed deer--four; axis deer--five; sika deer--five; fallow deer--four. This brings the total number of protozoan species identified in each deer species to: white-tailed--eight; axis--12; sika--15; fallow--16. For all species combined, protozoan concentration were 7.5 to 11-fold higher (P < 0.01) from Area 4, which differed from the other three areas by having a stream that allowed deer to have free access to water. Criteria used for identification of medium-size Eudiplodinium species were evaluated.     

Mandibular osteomyelitis in red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) and fallow deer (Dama dama): occurrence and associated factors in free-living populations in southern Spain

The prevalence of mandibular osteomyelitis, which results in a condition called lumpy jaw, and factors associated with its occurrence were investigated in syntopic free-living populations of red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) in Spain. The study material consisted of 3,586 mandibles from 2,548 red deer and 1,038 fallow deer shot during sport hunting, herd management culls, and programs for population control between 1988 and 1997 (period 1) and 2002 and 2009 (period 2) in eastern Sierra Morena, southern Spain. Disease prevalence ranged from 0.36% to 10.91% among age groups. Older animals were significantly more likely to be affected than younger ones. Red deer stags had higher prevalence than other groups. There was a significantly higher prevalence in period 1, probably associated with differences in climatic and population conditions. High population densities of female red deer contributed significantly to occurrence of disease. Intensive herd management and poor environmental conditions were considered risk factors that increased susceptibility to disease. The study of this affliction could be useful for monitoring general herd welfare and ecologic changes in Mediterranean ecosystems.     

Seasonal variations in serum concentrations of testosterone,testicular volume and neck circumference of fallow deer (Dama dama) kept ex situ in a tropical region

The fallow deer (Dama dama) is a species of Cervidae commonly kept in captivity, either in commercial farms or in zoos. The reproductive seasonality of this species is well known in the northern hemisphere, where photoperiod is a decisive factor in androgenic activity and, consequently, in the development of secondary sexual characteristics among male adults. The maintenance of this species in tropical regions has been successful, but there are no studies that demonstrate the maintenance of reproductive seasonality under these climatic conditions, which was the objective of the present study. To do so, the present investigation involved 27 fallow deer (D. dama) specimens, of which 14 were adults and 13 prepubescent (<8 months) individuals, all assessed during and outside (December–February) the reproductive season (June–August). The serum concentrations of testosterone, testicular volume, and neck circumference were analyzed among all animals during both seasons. The reproductive season was marked by expressive hormonal concentrations, increasing neck circumference and testicular volume, differing significantly between adults and prepubescent individuals outside the season. Positive correlations were observed among all analyzed variables: mean testicular volume and neck circumference (r = 0.92, p < 0.0001), testicular volume and testosterone concentrations (r = 0.79, p < 0.0001) and between neck circumference and testosterone concentrations (r = 0.67, p < 0.0001). Given the results found, the conclusion is that even under tropical climate conditions the reproductive seasonality of the fallow deer is well defined and may be related to photoperiod.     

Variation in Mating Systems of Fallow Deer (Dama dama) in Relation to Ecology

Variation in mating systems of fallow deer (Dama dama L.) was studied in wild and park populations and could be broadly distinguished into 7 categories: following, harems, dominance groups, stands, temporary stands, multiple stands, and leks. The ecological factors which exerted the greatest influence on mating systems were buck density, doe density, and habitat structure and tree cover, resulting in pronounced changes in the degree and type of territoriality observed. Individual male reproductive success was highly skewed in all systems. A greater range of concurrent mating strategies was observed in wild populations than in parks.     

Failure of fallow deer (Dama dama) to develop chronic wasting disease when exposed to a contaminated environment and infected mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus)

We monitored a herd of fallow deer (Dama dama) for evidence of prion infection for 7 yr by periodic postmortem examination of animals from the herd. The fallow deer were exposed to the chronic wasting disease (CWD) agent from mule deer by living in a paddock considered contaminated with infectivity from its history of housing CWD infected deer and, after the first year of the study, by comingling with infected mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). At least 8 of 12 mule deer serving as sentinels for prion transmission and 25 additional mule deer serving as sources of infectivity developed clinical CWD or were otherwise confirmed to be infected with CWD via lymphoid tissue immunohistochemistry (IHC). In contrast, none of the 41 exposed fallow deer showed clinical signs suggestive of CWD, IHC staining of disease-associated prion in lymphoid or brain tissues, or evidence of spongiform degeneration in sections of brain stem at the level of the obex when sampled 18 mo to 7 yr after entering the mule deer paddock. The absence of clinical disease and negative IHC results in fallow deer housed in the same contaminated paddock for up to 7 yr and almost continuously exposed to CWD-infected mule deer for up to 6 yr suggests a species barrier or other form of resistance preventing fallow deer infection by the CWD agent or delaying progression of the disease in this species.     

Genetic polymorphism of transferrin in fallow deer, Cervus dama L

A study of 15 blood protein systems in fallow deer, Cervus dama L., has revealed a transferrin polymorphism in two German populations for the first time in this species. Genetic analysis of complete families suggests that the transferrin system is controlled by one gene locus with two codominant alleles. The comparison of the present results with other studies on this species leads to the hypothesis that at least the European mainland fallow deer populations are genetically more differentiated than previously assumed.     

Genetic consequences of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) restoration in Mississippi

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were nearly extirpated from the southeastern USA during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Recovery programmes, including protection of remnant native stocks and transplants from other parts of the species' range, were initiated in the early 1900's. The recovery programmes were highly successful and deer are presently numerous and continuously distributed throughout the southeastern USA. However, the impact of the recovery programmes on the present genetic structure of white-tailed deer remains to be thoroughly investigated. We used 17 microsatellite DNA loci to assess genetic differentiation and diversity for 543 white-tailed deer representing 16 populations in Mississippi and three extra-state reference populations. There was significant genetic differentiation among all populations and the majority of genetic variation (> or = 93%) was contained within populations. Patterns of genetic structure, genetic similarity and isolation by distance within Mississippi were not concordant with geographical proximity of populations or subspecies delineations. We detected evidence of past genetic bottlenecks in nine of the 19 populations examined. However, despite experiencing genetic bottlenecks or founder events, allelic diversity and heterozygosity were uniformly high in all populations. These exceeded reported values for other cervid species that experienced similar population declines within the past century. The recovery programme was successful in that deer were restored to their former range while maintaining high and uniform genetic variability. Our results seem to confirm the importance of rapid population expansion and habitat continuity in retaining genetic variation in restored populations. However, the use of diverse transplant stocks and the varied demographic histories of populations resulted in fine-scale genetic structuring.     

Light and electron microscope study of Sarcocystis sp. from the fallow deer (Cervus dama)

By means of light and electron microscopy a study was made of Sarcocystis sp. from 11 fallow deer (Cervus dama). Cysts of Sarcocystis sp. were found in the tongue and abdominal muscle of 3 of 11 deer from forests near Bonn (FRG). These measured 212-560 micron in length and 54-120 micron in width and contained metrocytes and merozoites. The cyst wall, which had narrow band-like protrusions, is compared with other Sarcocystis sp. from Cervidae.     

Polymorphisms and variants in the prion protein sequence of European moose (Alces alces), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) in Scandinavia

The prion protein (PrP) sequence of European moose, reindeer, roe deer and fallow deer in Scandinavia has high homology to the PrP sequence of North American cervids. Variants in the European moose PrP sequence were found at amino acid position 109 as K or Q. The 109Q variant is unique in the PrP sequence of vertebrates. During the 1980s a wasting syndrome in Swedish moose, Moose Wasting Syndrome (MWS), was described. SNP analysis demonstrated a difference in the observed genotype proportions of the heterozygous Q/K and homozygous Q/Q variants in the MWS animals compared with the healthy animals. In MWS moose the allele frequencies for 109K and 109Q were 0.73 and 0.27, respectively, and for healthy animals 0.69 and 0.31. Both alleles were seen as heterozygotes and homozygotes. In reindeer, PrP sequence variation was demonstrated at codon 176 as D or N and codon 225 as S or Y. The PrP sequences in roe deer and fallow deer were identical with published GenBank sequences.     

Phylogeography and conservation genetics of Eld's deer (Cervus eldi)

Eld's deer (Cervus eldi) is a highly endangered cervid, distributed historically throughout much of South Asia and Indochina. We analysed variation in the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region for representatives of all three Eld's deer subspecies to gain a better understanding of the genetic population structure and evolutionary history of this species. A phylogeny of mtDNA haplotypes indicates that the critically endangered and ecologically divergent C. eldi eldi is related more closely to C. e. thamin than to C. e. siamensis, a result that is consistent with biogeographic considerations. The results also suggest a strong degree of phylogeographic structure both between subspecies and among populations within subspecies, suggesting that dispersal of individuals between populations has been very limited historically. Haplotype diversity was relatively high for two of the three subspecies (thamin and siamensis), indicating that recent population declines have not yet substantially eroded genetic diversity. In contrast, we found no haplotype variation within C. eldi eldi or the Hainan Island population of C. eldi siamensis, two populations which are known to have suffered severe population bottlenecks. We also compared levels of haplotype and nucleotide diversity in an unmanaged captive population, a managed captive population and a relatively healthy wild population. Diversity indices were higher in the latter two, suggesting the efficacy of well-designed breeding programmes for maintaining genetic diversity in captivity. Based on significant genetic differentiation among Eld's deer subspecies, we recommend the continued management of this species in three distinct evolutionarily significant units (ESUs). Where possible, it may be advisable to translocate individuals between isolated populations within a subspecies to maintain levels of genetic variation in remaining Eld's deer populations.