Sequence-dependent anisotropic flexibility of B-DNA. A conformational study

Bending flexibility of the six tetrameric duplexes was investigated d(AAAA):d(TTTT), d(AATT)2, d(TTAA)2, d(GGGG):d(CCCC), d(GGCC)2 and d(CCGG)2,. The tetramers were extended in the both directions by regular double helices. The stiffness of the B-DNA double helix when bent into the both grooves proved to be less than that in the perpendicular direction by an order of magnitude. Such an anisotropy is a property of the sugar-phosphate backbone structure. The calculated fluctuations of the DNA bending along the dyad axis, 5-7 degree, are in agreement with experimental value of the DNA persistence length. Anisotropy of the double helix is sequence-dependent: most easily bent into the minor groove are the tetramers with purine-pyrimidine dimer (RY) in the middle. In contrast, YR dinucleotides prefer bending into the major groove. Moreover, they have an equilibrium bend of 6-12 degree into this groove. The above inequality is caused by stacking interaction of the bases. The bend in the central dimer is distributed to some extent between the adjacent links, though the main fraction of the bend remains within the central link. Variation of the sugar-phosphate geometry in the bent helix is inessential, so that DNA remains within the B-family of forms: namely, when the helical axis is bent by 20 degree. the backbone dihedral angles vary by no more than 15 degree. The obtained results are in accord with x-ray structure of the B-DNA dodecamer; they further substantiate our early model of DNA wrapping in the nucleosome by means of "mini-kinks" separated by a half-pitch of the double helix, i.e. by 5-6 b.p. Sequence-dependent anisotropy of DNA presumably dictates the three-dimensional structure of DNA in solution as well. We have found that nonrandom allocation of YR dimers leads to the systematic bends in equilibrium structure of certain DNA fragments.     

Anisotropic flexibility of DNA depends on the base sequence. Conformation calculations of double-stranded tetranucleotides AAAA:TTTT, (AATT)2, (TTAA)2, GGGG:CCCC, (GGCC)2, (CCGG)2

The bending flexibility of six tetramers was studied in an assumption that they were extended in the both directions by regular double helices. The bends of B-DNA in different directions were considered. The stiffness of the B-DNA double helix when bent into the both grooves proved to be less pronounced than in the perpendicular direction by the order of magnitude. Such an anisotropy is a feature of the sugar-phosphate backbone structure. The calculated fluctuations of the DNA bending along the dyad axis, 5-7 degrees, are in agreement with the experimental value of DNA persistence length. Anisotropy of the double helix is sequence-dependent: most easily bent into the minor groove are the tetramers with purine-pyrimidine dimer (RY) in the middle. In contrast, YR dinucleotides prefer bending into the major groove, moreover, they have an equilibrium bend of 6-12 degrees into this groove. The above inequality is caused by the stacking interaction of the bases. The bend in the central dimers is distributed to some extent between the adjacent links, though the main fraction of the bend remains within the central link. Variation of the sugar-phosphate geometry in the bent helix is unessential, so that DNA remains within the limits of the B-family of forms: namely, when the helical axis is bent by 20 degrees the backbone dihedral angles vary by no more than 15 degrees. The obtained results are in accord with the X-ray structure of B-DNA dodecamer; they further substantiate our earlier model of DNA wrapping in the nucleosome by means of "mini-kinks" separated by a half-pitch of the double helix, i.e. by 5-6 b. p. Sequence-dependent anisotropy of DNA presumably dictates the three-dimensional structure of DNA in solution as well. We have found that nonrandom allocation of YR dimers leads to the systematic bends in the equilibrium structure of certain DNA fragments. To the four "Calladine rules" two more can be added: the minor-groove steric clash of purines in the YR sequences are avoided by: (1) bending of the helix into the major groove; (2) increasing the distance between the base pairs (stretching the double helix).     

Sequence-Dependent Bending of DNA and Phasing of Nucleosomes

Abstract

Conformational analysis has revealed anisotropic flexibility of the B-DNA double helix: it bends most easily into the grooves, being the most rigid when bent in a perpendicular direction. This result implies that DNA in a nucleosome is curved by means of relatively sharp bends (“mini-kinks”) which are directed into the major and minor grooves alternatively and separated by 5–6 base pairs. The “mini-kink” model proved to be in keeping with the x-ray structure of the B-DNA dodecamer resolved later, which exhibits two “annealed kinks”, also directed into the grooves.

The anisotropy of B DNA is sequence-dependent: the pyrimidine-purine dimers (YR) favor bending into the minor groove, and the purine-pyrimidine dinucleotides (RY), into the minor one. The RR and YY dimers appear to be the most rigid dinucleotides. Thus, a DNA fragment consisting of the interchanging oligopurine and oligopyrmidine blocks 5–6 base pairs long should manifest a spectacular curvature in solution.

Similarly, a nucleotide sequence containing the RY and YR dimers separated by a half-pitch of the double helix is the most suitable for wrapping around the nucleosomal core. Analysis of the numerous examples demonstrating the specific alignment of nucleosomes on DNA confirms this concept. So, the sequence-dependent “mechanical” properties of the double helix influence the spatial arrangement of DNA in chromatin.     

Sequence-dependent bending of DNA and phasing of nucleosomes

Conformational analysis has revealed anisotropic flexibility of the B-DNA double helix: it bends most easily into the grooves, being the most rigid when bent in a perpendicular direction. This result implies that DNA in a nucleosome is curved by means of relatively sharp bends ("mini-kinks") which are directed into the major and minor grooves alternatively and separated by 5-6 base pairs. The "mini-kink" model proved to be in keeping with the x-ray structure of the B-DNA dodecamer resolved later, which exhibits two "annealed kinks", also directed into the grooves. The anisotropy of B DNA is sequence-dependent: the pyrimidine-purine dimers (YR) favor bending into the minor groove, and the purine-pyrimidine dinucleotides (RY), into the minor one. The RR and YY dimers appear to be the most rigid dinucleotides. Thus, a DNA fragment consisting of the interchanging oligopurine and oligopyrimidine blocks 5-6 base pairs long should manifest a spectacular curvature in solution. Similarly, a nucleotide sequence containing the RY and YR dimers separated by a half-pitch of the double helix is the most suitable for wrapping around the nucleosomal core. Analysis of the numerous examples demonstrating the specific alignment of nucleosomes on DNA confirms this concept. So, the sequence-dependent "mechanical" properties of the double helix influence the spatial arrangement of DNA in chromatin.     

DNA minor groove electrostatic potential: influence of sequence-specific transitions of the torsion angle gamma and deoxyribose conformations

The structural adjustments of the sugar-phosphate DNA backbone (switching of the γ angle (O5′–C5′–C4′–C3′) from canonical to alternative conformations and/or C2′-endo → C3′-endo transition of deoxyribose) lead to the sequence-specific changes in accessible surface area of both polar and non-polar atoms of the grooves and the polar/hydrophobic profile of the latter ones. The distribution of the minor groove electrostatic potential is likely to be changing as a result of such conformational rearrangements in sugar-phosphate DNA backbone. Our analysis of the crystal structures of the short free DNA fragments and calculation of their electrostatic potentials allowed us to determine: (1) the number of classical and alternative γ angle conformations in the free B-DNA; (2) changes in the minor groove electrostatic potential, depending on the conformation of the sugar-phosphate DNA backbone; (3) the effect of the DNA sequence on the minor groove electrostatic potential. We have demonstrated that the structural adjustments of the DNA double helix (the conformations of the sugar-phosphate backbone and the minor groove dimensions) induce changes in the distribution of the minor groove electrostatic potential and are sequence-specific. Therefore, these features of the minor groove sizes and distribution of minor groove electrostatic potential can be used as a signal for recognition of the target DNA sequence by protein in the implementation of the indirect readout mechanism.     

Flexibility Of DNA In 2:1 Drug-DNA Complexes - Simultaneous Binding Of Two DAPI Molecules To DNA

Abstract

Simultaneous binding of two DAPI molecules in the minor groove of (dA)₁₅.(dT)₁₅ B-DNA helix has been simulated by molecular mechanics calculations. The energy minimised structure shows some novel features in relation to binding of DAPI molecules as well as the flexibility of the grooves of DNA helices. The minor groove of the helix expands locally considerably (to 15 Å) to accommodate the two DAPI molecules and is achieved by positive propeller twisting of base pairs at the binding site concomitant with small variations in the local nucleotide stereochemistry. The expansion also brings forth simultaneously a contraction in the width of the major groove spread over to a few phosphates. These findings demonstrate another facet of the flexible stereochemistry of DNA helices in which the local features are significantly altered without being propagated beyond a few base pairs, and with the rest of the regions retaining the normal structure. Both the DAPI molecules are engaged in specific hydrogen bonds with the bases and non specific interactions with phosphates. Stacking interactions of DAPI molecules between themselves as well as with sugar-phosphate backbone contribute to the stability of the complex. The studies provide a stereochemical support to the experimental findings that under high drug-DNA ratio DAPI could bind in the 2:1 ratio.     

Left-handed DNA Crossovers. Implications for DNA-DNA Recognition and Structural Alterations

Abstract

The close approach of DNA segments participates in many biological functions including DNA condensation and DNA processing. Previous crystallographic studies have shown that B-DNA self-fitting by mutual groove-backbone interaction produces right-handed DNA crossovers. These structures have opened new perspectives on the role of close DNA-DNA interactions in the architecture and activity the DNA molecule. In the present study, the analysis of the crystal packing of two B-DNA decamer duplexes d(CCIIICCCGG) and d(CCGCCGGCGG) reveals the existence of new modes of DNA crossing. Symmetric left- handed crossovers are produced by mutual fitting of DNA grooves at the crossing point. New sequence patterns contribute to stabilize longitudinal fitting of the sugar-phosphate backbone into the major groove. In addition, the close approach of DNA segments greatly influences the DNA conformation in a sequence dependent manner. This study provides new insights into the role of DNA sequence and structure in DNA-DNA recognition. In providing detailed molecular views of DNA crossovers of opposite chirality, this study can also help to elucidate the role of symmetry and chirality in the recognition of complex DNA structures by protein dimers or tetramers, such as topoisomerase II and recombinase enzymes. These results are discussed in the context of the possible relationships between DNA condensation and DNA processing.     

Stereochemical Effects of Methylphosphonate in B- and Z-DNA Helices: Variation in Hydrophobicity and Effective Widths of Grooves

Abstract

Stereochemical effects of methylphosphonate (MP) in B-DNA and Z-DNA duplexes are studied through molecular mechanics approach. Duplexes of different lengths, tetramers, hexamers, dodecamers are examined to assess the interstrand and intrastrand electrostatic effects due to MPs vis-a-vis phosphates. A variety of models which include duplexes with alternating S-MP and R-MP, alternating phosphate and MP and, duplexes posessing MPs in only one of the strands, are examined by considering both the S- and R-stereoisomers. Majority of the calculations are performed with CG sequences to delineate factors responsible for the stability of B- and Z-DNA as well as B × Z-DNA transition under nonionic conditions. The results show that both B- and Z-DNA duplexes are energetically favoured in the presence of MP due to overwhelming reduction in intrastrand as well as interstrand electrostatic repulsive interactions. The effect is distinct in oligomers longer than tetramers. Comparison of energetics of MP B- and Z-DNA duplexes suggests that an oligodeoxynucleotide such as d(CG)₆ with all phosphates replaced by MPs may favour equally both B- and Z-DNA conformations. The analysis further provides an estimate of electrostatic interactions, operating at the grooves under a variety of conditions. Several specific and localised effects due to S-MP and R-MP are seen at CG and GC steps in various B-DNA and Z-DNA models. S-MP in B- DNA reduces the effective major groove width by nearly 3 Å hence denying access to the functional groups of endonucleases thereby enhancing the resistance of MP-DNA to enzymatic digestion. Further, methyl groups of MP render the surface of the DNA helix to be significantly hydrophobic which may explain higher permeability of MP-DNA in membranes as well as its less soluble nature in aqueous media.     

Counterion-Type Characteristic Effects on Intrinsic Bending Components of Calf Thymus DNA; Hydrodynamic Investigations

Abstract

This paper stresses structural differences in A · T clusters of the ammonium salt of calf thymus (et) DNA (ctNH₄DNA) and the respective sodium salt, ctNaDNA Sequence mediated intrinsic helix bends of ctNaDNA distributed along the molecule partially randomly and partially phased with the helix screw (accompanying paper), are enhanced in ctNH₄DNA. Additionally, the number of the most strongly bent segments (of A-tract character) is raised in ctNH₄NA by a counterion mediated shift of the equilibrium between at least two local DNA conformations. Nevertheless, the apparent DNA elongation, induced by the abolition of a single apparent solenoid-related DNA tertiary structure component which generates a special intrinsic DNA bend, is the same for NH₄DNA and NaDNA.

These conclusions follow from two independent sets of experimental results:

(1.) Titration viscometric measurements with ctNH₄DNA as a function of the cation concentration in comparison to ctNaDNA (KER et al. JBSD 9, 537 (1991)) and respective DNA conformational analyses.

(2.) Quantitative viscometric analysis of DNA conformational changes on netropsin (Nt) interaction of ctNHjDNA at different temperatures and comparison with the respective data for ctNaDNA (KER et al., NAR 9, 2335 (1981).     

A Stochastic Model for Helix Bending in B-DNA

Abstract

Bending in double-helical B-DNA apparently occurs only by rolling adjacent base pairs over one another along their long axes. The lifting apart of ends that would be required by tilt or wedge angle contributions is too costly in free energy and does not occur. Roll angles at base steps can be positive (compression of major groove) or negative (compression of minor groove); with the former somewhat easier.

Individual steps may advance or oppose the overall direction of bend, or make lateral excursions, but the result of this series of “random roll” steps is the production of a net bending in the helix axis. Because the natural roll points for bending in a given plane occur every 5 base pairs, one would expect that double-helical DNA wrapped around a nucleosome core would exhibit bends with the same periodicity. Alternate bends might be particularly acute where the major groove faced the nucleosome core and was compressed against it.

The “annealed kinking” model proposed by Fratini et al. (J. Biol. Chem. 257, 14686 (1982) was suggested from the observation that a major bend at a natural roll point is flanked by decreasing roll angles at the steps to either side, as though local strain was being minimized by somewhat blurring the bend out rather than keeping it localized. The random walk model suggested in this paper would describe this as a decreased roll angle as the helix step rotates toward a direction perpendicular to the overall bend. Bending of DNA is seen to be a more stochastic process than had been suspected. Detailed analysis of every helix step reveals both side excursions and backward or retrograde motion, as in any random walk situation. Yet these isolated steps counteract one another, to leave behind a residuum of overall bending in a specific direction.     

A Parallel Stranded Linear DNA Duplex Incorporating dG · dC Base Pairs

Abstract

DNA oligonucleotides with appropriately designed complementary sequences can form a duplex in which the two strands are paired in a parallel orientation and not in the conventional antiparallel double helix of B-DNA. All parallel stranded (ps) molecules reported to date have consisted exclusively of dA · dT base pairs. We have substituted four dA · dT base pairs of a 25-nt parallel stranded linear duplex (ps-D1 · D2) with dG · dC base pairs. The two strands still adopt a duplex structure with the characteristic spectroscopic properties of the ps conformation but with a reduced thermodynamic stability. Thus, the melting temperature of the ps duplex with four dG · dC base pairs (ps-D5 · D6) is 10-16°C lower and the van't Hoff enthalpy difference Δ_vH for the helix-coil transition is reduced by 20% (in NaCl) and 10% (in MgCl₂) compared to that of ps-Dl · D2. Based on energy minimizations of a ps-[d(T₅GA₅) · d(A₅CT₅)] duplex using force field calculations we propose a model for the conformation of a trans dG · dC base pair in a ps helix.     

Base Pair Opening Pathways in B-DNA

Abstract

Molecular modeling is used to study the opening pathways of bases within a B-DNA oligomer. It is demonstrated that many open states are possible for a single base pair, although a preference for opening towards the major groove of the double helix is found. In addition we show that opening is strongly influenced by the nature of the base involved and is also coupled in many cases to DNA bending.     

Molecular mechanics studies of parallel and antiparallel phosphate-methylated DNA

Methylation of phosphate groups in oligo-dT strands leads to a parallel duplex with T · T base pairs. Molecular mechanics calculations on parallel d(TTTTTT)₂ show it to be a symmetric right-handed helix with B-DNA conformational characteristics. Phosphate methylation stabilizes the duplex by ca. 41 kcal/mol, due to removal of the interstrand phosphate electrostatic repulsions. The chirality introduced with phosphate methylation is important for the molecular geometry, since R_P methylation predominantly influences the conformation around the ζ bond (P? O_3′), while S_P methylation mostly changes the α conformation (P? O_5′). This is also true in antiparallel helices with methylated phosphates, as is shown by molecular mechanics calculations on d(GCGCGC)₂. These results may be of relevance to protein–DNA interactions, where phosphate charges are also shielded. As the pro-S_P oxygen is most available in a right-handed helix, we suggest changes around the α bond to occur upon protein complexation, leading to a widening of the major groove in the d(GCGCGC)₂ duplex (from 12 to 13 Å) and reduced minor groove (from 6 to 5 Å).     

Left-handed DNA crossovers. Implications for DNA-DNA recognition and structural alterations

The close approach of DNA segments participates in many biological functions including DNA condensation and DNA processing. Previous crystallographic studies have shown that B-DNA self-fitting by mutual groove-backbone interaction produces right-handed DNA crossovers. These structures have opened new perspectives on the role of close DNA-DNA interactions in the architecture and activity the DNA molecule. In the present study, the analysis of the crystal packing of two B-DNA decamer duplexes d(CCIIICCCGG) and d(CCGCCGGCGG) reveals the existence of new modes of DNA crossing. Symmetric left-handed crossovers are produced by mutual fitting of DNA grooves at the crossing point. New sequence patterns contribute to stabilize longitudinal fitting of the sugar-phosphate backbone into the major groove. In addition, the close approach of DNA segments greatly influences the DNA conformation in a sequence dependent manner. This study provides new insights into the role of DNA sequence and structure in DNA-DNA recognition. In providing detailed molecular views of DNA crossovers of opposite chirality, this study can also help to elucidate the role of symmetry and chirality in the recognition of complex DNA structures by protein dimers or tetramers, such as topoisomerase II and recombinase enzymes. These results are discussed in the context of the possible relationships between DNA condensation and DNA processing.     

Minor-Groove Binding Models for Acetylaminofluorene Modified DNA

Abstract

Minimized potential energy calculations have been employed to locate and evaluate energetically a number of different models for DNA modified at carbon-8 of guanine by acetylaminofluorene (AAF). Three different duplex nonamer sequences were investigated. In addition to syn guanine models which have some denaturation and a Z-DNA model, we have found two new types of structures in which guanine remains syn and the AAF is placed in the minor groove of a B-DNA helix. One type features Hoogsteen base pairing between the modified guanine and protonated cytosine, with a sharply bent helix. The other (here termed the “wedge” model because the aromatic amine is wedged into the minor groove) maintains a single hydrogen bond between O6 of the modified guanine and N3 of protonated cytosine, with much less deformation of the helix, and close Van der Waals contacts between the AAF and the walls of the minor groove. Both types of structures (as well as the related forms produced by deprotonation of cytosine) are energetically important in all three sequences examined. The wedge-type model, which is most favored except in alternating G-C sequences, has been previously observed in a combined NMR and computational characterization of an aminofluorene (AF) modified guanine opposite adenine in a DNA duplex undecamer (D. Norman, P. Abuaf, B.E. Hingerty, D. Live, D. Grunberger, S. Broyde and D.J. Patel, Biochemistry 28, 7462 (1989)).     

Crystallographic study of one turn of G/C-rich B-DNA

The DNA decamer d(CCAGGCCTGG) has been studied by X-ray crystallography. At a nominal resolution of 1.6 A, the structure was refined to R = 16.9% using stereochemical restraints. The oligodeoxyribonucleotide forms a straight B-DNA double helix with crystallographic dyad symmetry and ten base-pairs per turn. In the crystal lattice, DNA fragments stack end-to-end along the c-axis to form continuous double helices. The overall helical structure and, notably, the groove dimensions of the decamer are more similar to standard, fiber diffraction-determined B-DNA than A-tract DNA. A unique stacking geometry is observed at the CA/TG base-pair step, where an increased rotation about the helix axis and a sliding motion of the base-pairs along their long axes leads to a superposition of the base rings with neighboring carbonyl and amino functions. Three-center (bifurcated) hydrogen bonds are possible at the CC/GG base-pair steps of the decamer. In their common sequence elements, d(CCAGGCCTGG) and the related G.A mismatch decamer d(CCAAGATTGG) show very similar three-dimensional structures, except that d(CCAGGCCTGG) appears to have a less regularly hydrated minor groove. The paucity of minor groove hydration in the center of the decamer may be a general feature of G/C-rich DNA and explain its relative instability in the B-form of DNA.     

Parallel DNA double helices. II. Conformational analysis of regular helices having a second order axis of symmetry

Conformational analysis of double helices of DNA with parallel arranged sugar-phosphate chains connected by twofold symmetry has been performed. Homopolymers poly(dA).poly(dA), poly(dC).poly(dC), poly(dG).poly(dG) and poly(dT).poly(dT) were studied. For each of the homopolymers all variants of H-bond pairing were checked. The maps of closing of sugar-phosphate backbone were previously computed. By the optimization of potential energy the dihedral angles and helix parameters of relatively stable conformations of parallel stranded polynucleotides were calculated. The dependence of conformational energy on the nucleic base character and the base pair type were studied. Two main conformational regions for favourable "parallel" helix of polynucleotides were found. The former of these two regions coincide with the region of typical conformational parameters of B-DNA. On an average the conformational energy of "parallel" DNA is close to the energy of canonic "antiparallel" B-DNA.     

Melting Behavior and Stability of (dA)8·(dT)8 Double Helix

Abstract

Melting behavior and stability of double helix of octadeoxyribonucleotides, (dA)₈·(dT)₈, have been studied by a UV measurement and a calculation of nearest-neighbor model. The helix of (dA)₈·(dT)₈ exhibited the thermodynamic parameters similar to those of B-form DNA.