Effectiveness of natural protected areas to prevent land use and land cover change in Mexico

This study evaluated the extent to which natural protected areas (NPAs) in Mexico have been effective for preventing land use/land cover change, considered as a major cause of other degradation processes. We developed an effectiveness index including NPA percentage of transformed areas (agriculture, induced vegetation, forestry plantations, and human settlements) in 2002, the rate and absolute extent of change in these areas (1993–2002), the comparison between rates of change observed inside the NPA and in an equivalent surrounding area, and between the NPA and the state(s) in which it is located. We chose 69 terrestrial federal NPAs, decreed before 1997, that were larger than 1,000 ha, not urban/reforested with non-native vegetation, not islands and not coastal strips, and estimated the extent of transformed areas using 1993 and 2002 land use/land cover maps. Over 54% of NPAs were effective, and were heterogeneously distributed by management categories: 65% of Biosphere Reserves, 53% of Flora and Fauna Protection Areas, and 45% of National Parks. 23% of NPAs were regarded as weakly effective, and the remaining 23% as non-effective. We recognize the importance of NPAs as a relevant conservation instrument, as half of NPAs analyzed (particularly biosphere reserves) prevented natural vegetation loss compared with their geographic context. Our results suggest that conservation based on NPAs in Mexico still faces significant challenges. Our approach can be expanded for evaluating the effectiveness of NPA in other regions, as land use/land cover maps are now available almost worldwide.     

土地覆盖变化检测方法比较——以内蒙古草原区为例

随着对地观测技术的不断发展,遥感影像分辨率逐渐提高,促进了基于遥感影像的变化检测从传统像元级的检测向面向对象的检测转变。为了探究面向对象的变化检测方法在土地覆盖变化检测中的有效性和适用性,对面向对象的变化检测方法与常规的变化检测方法进行对比评价。以内蒙古鄂尔多斯和包头地区为试验区,选取2002年及2011年的Landsat TM/ETM+影像为数据源,比较了图像代数运算、图像变换、图像空间结构特征和面向对象的多种变化检测方法,对研究区两期土地覆盖进行了变化检测研究。结果表明:面向对象的变化检测方法在总体精度、kappa系数上都有明显的优越性,总体精度均在87.42%以上,尤其以面向对象的变化矢量分析方法精度最高,达91.56%。此外,主成分差异法也有较好的检测效果,总体精度为87.83%。对总体精度较高的3种方法在不同土地覆盖变化类型中检测效果的研究表明:对于研究区几种主要土地覆盖变化类型,面向对象的变化矢量分析法均有较理想的检测效果,平均精度为85%左右,且始终优于面向对象的光谱向量相似法,以居民地及旱地相关的变化类型最为明显;主成分差异法对不同土地覆盖变化类型检测效果差异很大,对其中4种变化类型的精度甚至达到了93%以上,但对于检测草地与裸地间转化精度很低,甚至只有8.69%;在与工矿用地有关的土地覆盖变化类型中,面向对象的变化矢量分析法的精度明显高于主成分差异法,而在与居民地有关的变化类型中,主成分差异法表现出一定优势。     

遥感探测土地植被覆盖指数的准确度评估

GIS数据的准确度一直是GIS应用的考虑事项。用虚例和实例揭示了土地植被覆盖指数的准确度与图像分类的准确度之间的复杂关系,并进一步用数学方式进行了解释。土地植被覆盖指数的准确度取决于图像分类准确度,但与分类总准确度没有直接关系。用户和产家准确度比总准确度对土地植被覆盖指数的准确度具有更直接的控制,所以在图像分类报告中不应被忽略为了保证土地植被覆盖指数的准确度,某土地类型的用户和产家准确度应该尽可能一致,同时要使得这两个准确度数值越高越好。     

长江源区土地覆盖变化与草地退化格局的时空分异

基于野外调查、遥感影像和统计资料,分析了1987-2007年长江源头地区土地覆盖变化和草地退化格局的时空分异特点,并从海拔、坡度和坡向3方面探讨了导致长江源区草地生态环境变化的主要自然因素.结果表明： 研究期间,长江源头地区土地类型破碎化整体呈增加趋势,自然地理条件和气候变化是导致土地格局变化的主要驱动因素;不同海拔草地退化面积差异显著,研究区草地退化主要发生在海拔4800～5100 m范围内,且退化面积随海拔的升高呈增加趋势,退化面积比重在不同坡度和坡向的差异较大.1987-2007年,长江源头地区气候呈暖干化趋势,区域土地覆盖类型空间结构变化明显;不同坡向、坡度和海拔的草地退化分布格局与高寒环境和人为干扰的格局基本一致,高寒环境和气候演化对草地生态系统格局起决定作用.     

Comparison of land use/land cover change and landscape patterns in Honghe National Nature Reserve and the surrounding Jiansanjiang Region,China

Land use and land cover change (LUCC) determines landscape patterns and affects the ability of ecosystems to provide the services and biodiversity on which humans ultimately depend. The Honghe National Nature Reserve is a biodiversity-rich area in the Jiansanjiang region of northeast China. In this study, the LUCC and landscape patterns were compared between the reserve and the Jiansanjiang region. With remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) procedures, satellite images from 1989, 2001 and 2010 were used to calculate dynamics of LUCC amplitudes, landscape pattern index, transition matrix. The influence of LUCC on the wetland landscape of the nature reserve was discussed in the context of broader LUCC analyses. The results showed that land uses in the studied regions changed remarkedly over the time period; swamp area declined significantly as arable land increased. The ecological landscape index showed that distinct landscape patches were small, scattered and highly fragmented, moving toward a more monotonous landscape. Anthropogenic activities such as farming directly decreased the wetland landscape diversity. Furthermore, anthropogenic factors diminished wetland areas indirectly through climatic factors, namely air temperature and precipitation levels. National and regional policies on agriculture and water use have been highly influential, and the Honghe National Nature Reserve is highly susceptible to land use changes in the surrounding Jiansanjiang region.     

基于RS与GIS的黄土丘陵沟壑区土地覆盖动态研究

应用遥感与GIS相结合的方法,对陕北黄土高原地区的数字影像进行人-机交互的屏幕解译,得到1990年、2000年的土地利用／覆盖数字地图,以及面积统计结果,分析表明,近10年来该地区建筑和工交用地逐年扩大,耕地面积保持稳定,果园面积显著增加,人工林地和森林覆盖率有较大幅度提高,荒野地占地比重下降,区域生态环境质量得到明显改善。     

Surrogate species protection in Bolivia under climate and land cover change scenarios

The Amazon rainforest covers more than 60% of Bolivia’s lowlands, providing habitat for many endemic and threatened species. Bolivia has the highest rates of deforestation of the Amazon biome, which degrades and fragments species habitat. Anthropogenic habitat changes could be exacerbated by climate change, and therefore, developing relevant strategies for biodiversity protection under global change scenarios is a necessary step in conservation planning.In this research we used multi-species umbrella concept to evaluate the degree of habitat impacts due to climate and land cover change in Bolivia. We used species distribution modeling to map three focal species (Jaguar, Lowland Tapir and Lesser Anteater) and assessed current protected area network effectiveness under future climate and land cover change scenarios for 2050.The studied focal species will lose between 70% and 83% of their ranges under future climate and land-cover change scenarios, decreasing the level of protection to 10% of their original ranges. Existing protected area network should be reconsidered to maintain current and future biodiversity habitats.     

基于FVC指数的中国西北干旱区植被覆盖变化Markov过程

基于1982-2000年NOAA/AVHRR影像的FVC数据,对中国西北干旱区采用先分区再因海拔而异的分类方法进行植被覆盖的遥感分类,并在8 km×8 km空间分辨率下,对研究区植被覆盖变化的任意两年、连续平均和间隔平均转移概率矩阵下Markov过程进行分析与检验,探讨了研究区植被覆盖变化的Markov过程及其指示意义.结果表明：研究区植被覆盖变化受随机过程的控制和长期稳定的驱动因子影响,其转移变化是多重的Markov过程;仅使用两期的植被覆盖变化不能准确预测植被覆盖变化的发展趋势,无论这两期的时间是连续还是有一定时间间隔;对中国西北干旱区而言,连续10年以上的数据变化信息基本可以反映大部分影响该区植被覆盖的因素,采用长期平均转移概率矩阵可以得到较稳定的模拟与预测;植被覆盖变化是长期的动态平衡,平衡一旦被打破,建立新平衡是一个很长的时间过程.     

20世纪90年代以来中国西南地区土地覆被变化

西南地区是我国重要的生态安全屏障区,也是气候敏感区和生态脆弱区。20世纪90年代以来,西南地区土地覆被发生了巨大变化,对生态环境和生态系统服务功能产生重大影响。基于全国30 m土地覆被数据集,分析了近20 a来西南地区土地覆被格局、变化及驱动因素。同时,基于MODIS-NDVI数据,利用像元二分模型估算了2000—2010年250 m分辨率年最大植被覆盖度,对森林、灌丛和草地的植被覆盖度变化进行分析。结果表明:1)2010年西南地区土地覆被以森林和草地为主,分别占总面积的29.08%和24.11%。2)1990—2010年西南地区森林、湿地和人工表面分别增加1.39%、5.86%和48.57%,灌丛、耕地和裸露地分别减少2.12%、2.88%和0.64%,变化的区域主要集中在生态建设重点区、城市圈、地震灾区、三峡库区、三江源区、青藏高原东南部和云南南部。3)2000—2010年西南地区森林、灌丛和草地植被覆盖度呈增加趋势的面积分别占26.54%、32.53%和28.87%,但汶川地震重灾区、横断山区、云南南部等地的森林及灌丛植被覆盖度下降,青藏高原东南部、川西高原草地退化。近20 a来,尽管气候变化对西南地区的土地覆被有一定影响,但人类活动仍然是导致其变化及时空差异的主要原因。     

Challenges in using land use and land cover data for global change studies

Land use and land cover data play a central role in climate change assessments. These data originate from different sources and inventory techniques. Each source of land use/cover data has its own domain of applicability and quality standards. Often data are selected without explicitly considering the suitability of the data for the specific application, the bias originating from data inventory and aggregation, and the effects of the uncertainty in the data on the results of the assessment. Uncertainties due to data selection and handling can be in the same order of magnitude as uncertainties related to the representation of the processes under investigation. While acknowledging the differences in data sources and the causes of inconsistencies, several methods have been developed to optimally extract information from the data and document the uncertainties. These methods include data integration, improved validation techniques and harmonization of classification systems. Based on the data needs of global change studies and the data availability, recommendations are formulated aimed at optimal use of current data and focused efforts for additional data collection. These include: improved documentation using classification systems for land use/cover data; careful selection of data given the specific application and the use of appropriate scaling and aggregation methods. In addition, the data availability may be improved by the combination of different data sources to optimize information content while collection of additional data must focus on validation of available data sets and improved coverage of regions and land cover types with a high level of uncertainty. Specific attention in data collection should be given to the representation of land management (systems) and mosaic landscapes.     

A bioregional analysis of the distribution of rainforest cover,deforestation and degradation in Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea (PNG) is an extensively forested country. Recent research suggests that despite commencing a trajectory of deforestation and degradation later than many counties in the Asia–Pacific region, PNG is now undergoing comparable rates of forest change. Here we explore the bioregional distribution of changes in the forest estate over the period 1972–2002 and examine their implications for forest protection. This is undertaken through the development of a novel bioregional classification of the country based on biogeographic regions and climatic zones, and its application to existing forest cover and forest‐cover change data. We found that degradation and deforestation varied considerably across the 11 defined biogeographic regions. We report that the majority of deforestation and degradation has occurred within all the lowland forests, and that it is these forests that have the greatest potential for further losses in the near term. The largest percentage of total change occurred in the east of PNG, in the islands and lowlands of the Bismarck, D'Entrecasteaux, East Papuan Islands and in the South‐East Papua–Oro region. The only region with a significant highlands component to undergo deforestation at a comparable magnitude to the islands and lowland regions was the Huon Peninsula and Adelbert region. Significant changes have also occurred at higher elevations, especially at the interface of subalpine grasslands and upper montane forests. Lower montane forests have experienced proportionally less change, yet it is these forests that constitute the majority of forests enclosed within the protected area system. We find that protected areas are not convincingly protecting either representative areas of PNG's ecosystems, nor the forests within their borders. We conclude by suggesting a more expansive and integrated approach to managing the national forest estate.     

洪湖湖区土地利用／土地覆盖时空格局研究

利用1987,1993和1998年的遥感影像资料,研究了江汉平原洪湖湖区土地利用／土地覆盖的时空变化,土地覆盖类型分为水体,湖滩植被,洪泛地,农田,裸地和居民地6类,运用GIS（Arc/Info)软件,将不同时期的土地利用／土地覆盖的格局进行了清晰的空间表达;通过叠加3个不同时段的影像分类图,计算出各种土地利用／土地覆盖类型转变成其他类型的比例,在1987－1993年期间,水体和洪泛地的面积分别增加了15．54％和9．62％,而1993－1998年期间这两种类型的变化较小,分别为0．58％和3．19％,农田面积从1987年的577．62km^2减少到1998年的188．58km^2,减少约2／3,在研究期间,裸地面积没有明显变化,湖潍植被的面积在1987－1993年期间降低18．60%,而在1993－1998年期间增加8．47％,土地利用／土地覆盖状况的变化与湖区退田还湖及降雨状况的年际变化有关。     

岷江上游土地利用/覆被变化及其驱动力

岷江上游具有自然环境的复杂性、生态系统的脆弱性、经济发展的边缘性、社会文化的过渡性等特性,其土地利用/土地覆盖变化的特点可以代表我国西南山地土地资源及利用中所存在的普遍问题.林地和草地是岷江上游地区的主要土地利用类型.从1974～2000年间各个土地利用类型均发生了不同程度的变化,林地面积持续减少,其它类型面积均有不同程度的增加.类型间的面积变化均为双向,主要发生在有林地、灌木林地、经济林地、草地、居民用地和耕地之间,且主要在林地和草地两个类型之间.其中1974～1986年的变化大于1986~2000年.人口和经济是该区土地利用变化的主要驱动因素.自实施天然林保护工程和退耕还林还草工程以来,该区土地利用状况有所好转,正在向好的方向发展.     

Spatial and temporal deforestation dynamics in protected and unprotected dry forests: a case study from Myanmar (Burma)

Tropical dry forests are more threatened, less protected and especially susceptible to deforestation. However, most deforestation research focuses on tropical rain forests. We analyzed spatial and temporal changes in land cover from 1972 through 2005 at Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary (CWS), a tropical dry forest in Myanmar (Burma). CWS is one of the largest protected patches of tropical dry forest in Southeast Asia and supports over half the remaining wild population of the endangered Eld’s deer. Between 1973 and 2005, 62% of forest was lost at an annual rate of 1.86% in the area, while forest loss inside CWS was only 16% (0.45% annually). Based on trends found during our study period, dry forests outside CWS would not persist beyond 2019, while forests inside CWS would persist for at least another 100 years. Analysis of temporal deforestation patterns indicates the highest rate of loss occurred between 1992 and 2001. Conversion to agriculture, shifting agriculture, and flooding from a hydro-electric development were the main deforestation drivers. Fragmentation was also severe, halving the area of suitable Eld’s deer habitat between 1973 and 2001, and increasing its isolation. CWS protection efforts were effective in reducing deforestation rates, although deforestation effects extended up to 2 km into the sanctuary. Establishing new protected areas for dry forests and finding ways to mitigate human impacts on existing forests are both needed to protect remaining dry forests and the species they support.     

Land cover change and land degradation in parts of the southwest coast of Nigeria

Frequent alteration in land cover often leads to decreased stability of ecosystems which can also increase the vulnerability of rural communities to externalities of environmental change. This study carried out in parts of the coast of southwestern Nigeria utilized topographic base maps and two-time Landsat TM imageries to assess the trend in land cover changes and ecosystems degradation for the three time periods 1965, 1986 and 2001. Remote sensing, geographic information systems and landscape pattern analysis were employed for data processing and analysis. The focus of the analysis was on land cover change, land degradation, and changes in landscape pattern resulting from interplay of natural and anthropogenic drivers.
The results show increased trend in human-induced land cover change with concomitant severe negative impacts on ecosystems and livelihoods. About 98,000ha (30% of the area) was seriously degraded as at 2001. About 33,000ha (10%) was under permanent saline water inundation with about 21 communities already dislocated. Loss of fragile ecosystems including marshland (from 7.7% in 1965 to 1% in 2001) and mangrove (from 14.6% in 1965 to 3.1% in 2001) was intense, while over 300 ponds/small lakes which are important for the local fishing economy have disappeared. About eighteen communities were also dislocated by erosion in a section around the southeastern parts of the coastline. Landscape metrics generated, suggested increased ecosystems perturbation and landscape fragmentation. The paper also discussed the implications of these rapid changes for ecosystems stability, food security and sustainable rural livelihoods in the area.     

Spatial patterns of the Chaco vegetation of central Argentina: Integration of remote sensing and phytosociology

Abstract. In this study we report the first application of Landsat TM imagery to Chaco vegetation studies at a regional scale in Argentina. We produced a map showing 13 clearly differentiated land‐cover types, and described the composition and structure of the plant communities, in an area of almost 42002 km² in central Argentina. The land‐cover map obtained shows that the Chaco vegetation in central Argentina is highly disturbed. In the lowland part of the area the dominant land‐cover types are largely cultural landscapes and substitute shrublands, which have displaced the original Chaco forests, leaving only small isolated remnants generally confined to sites with some kind of constrain for agriculture. The use of TM images and the multivariate analysis of phytosociological data showed a qualified, high accuracy mapping capability for land‐cover types in the Chaco region (ca. 85% overall accuracy). Our results highlight the utility of TM and field data in a subtropical to warm‐temperate region, which is promising where other ancillary data are not available and a rapid acquisition of reliable vegetation data is required, so constituting a starting point for an imperative and more extensive classification and mapping of the endangered Chaco region.     

Largely underestimated carbon emission from land use and land cover change in the conterminous United States

Carbon (C) emission and uptake due to land use and land cover change (LULCC) are the most uncertain term in the global carbon budget primarily due to limited LULCC data and inadequate model capability (e.g., underrepresented agricultural managements). We take the commonly used FAOSTAT‐based global Land Use Harmonization data (LUH2) and a new high‐resolution multisource harmonized national LULCC database (YLmap) to drive a land ecosystem model (DLEM) in the conterminous United States. We found that recent cropland abandonment and forest recovery may have been overestimated in the LUH2 data derived from national statistics, causing previously reported C emissions from land use have been underestimated due to the definition of cropland and aggregated LULCC signals at coarse resolution. This overestimation leads to a strong C sink (30.3 ± 2.5 Tg C/year) in model simulations driven by LUH2 in the United States during the 1980–2016 period, while we find a moderate C source (13.6 ± 3.5 Tg C/year) when using YLmap. This divergence implies that previous C budget analyses based on the global LUH2 dataset have underestimated C emission in the United States owing to the delineation of suitable cropland and aggregated land conversion signals at coarse resolution which YLmap overcomes. Thus, to obtain more accurate quantification of LULCC‐induced C emission and better serve global C budget accounting, it is urgently needed to develop fine‐scale country‐specific LULCC data to characterize the details of land conversion.     

Quantification and assessment of changes in ecosystem service in the Three-River Headwaters Region,China as a result of climate variability and land cover change

Rapid and periodic assessment of the impact of land cover change and climate variability on ecosystem services at regional levels is essential to understanding services and sustainability of ecosystems. This study focused on quantifying and assessing the changes in multiple ecosystem services in the Three-River Headwaters Region (TRHR), China in 2000–2012. Based on the widely used biophysical models including Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-Offs (InVEST), Revised Wind Erosion Equation (RWSQ), and Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach (CASA) models, this study assessed the historical flow of regulating services, including soil conservation, water yield, and carbon sequestration, and provisioning service food provision. The soil conservation function of ecosystem was slightly enhanced as a whole, and water yield increased sharply, with both the soil conservation and water yield showing an increasing spatial homogenization. The net primary productivity (NPP) and food production increased substantially from 2000 to 2012. Ecosystem services are closely and complexly interlinked. The correlation analyses indicated a trade-off between the water yield and carbon sequestration, however, a synergy between soil conservation and carbon sequestration. Congruence between the three different ecosystem provisioning services, including pasture, meat, and grain, was found. There was also a synergy between food production and ecosystem carbon sequestration in the TRHR. Climatic variability and vegetation restoration are important for the ecosystem services flow. Correlation analyses showed that the increase in precipitation significantly enhanced the water yield (P < 0.01) and soil erosion (P < 0.01), while the temperature increase influenced positively the NPP (P < 0.1). The experience of ecological rehabilitation and the change in key ecosystem services in the TRHR exemplified the positive effects of environmental policies and the necessity of adopting an adaptive management approach. Thus the ecological construction and policy making should take climate variability into account, and facilitate synergies on multiple ecosystem services in order to maximize human well-being and preserve its natural ecosystems.     

敦煌市土地利用/覆盖变化特征及成因分析

利用ArcGIS9.2软件,结合野外调查,对敦煌市1987、1996和2007年3期Land-sat5-TM遥感影像进行解译,并分8个类型分析了土地利用/覆盖变化的特征及成因。结果表明:近20年来敦煌市呈现出植被覆盖程度不断降低、覆盖面积减小的趋势,其中耕作区、城建用地和无植被区面积净增,其他5类用地面积净减;8类用地类型之间互有转换,转移的主要方向是部分草地和无植被区转变为耕作区,水域湿地和灌木林地转变为草地,草地由高覆盖、中覆盖、低覆盖到无植被区逐次转变;除了耕作区边缘植被覆盖程度有所增加外,其他区域退化趋势明显;引起LUCC的自然因素中气温升高的影响较大,而人文因素中土地开垦、增加灌溉的影响较大。     

Remote sensing of 10 years changes in the vegetation cover of the northwestern coastal land of Red Sea,Saudi Arabia

Accurate and up to date land use and land cover (LU/LC) changes information is the main source to understanding and assessing the environmental outcomes of such changes and is important for development plans. Thus, this study quantified the outlines of land cover variation of 10-years in the northwestern costal land of the Red Sea, Saudi Arabia. Two different supervised classification algorithms are visualized and evaluated to preparing a policy recommendation for the proper improvements towards better determining the tendency and the proportion of the vegetation cover changes. Firstly, to determine present vegetation structure of study area, 78 stands with a size of 50 × 50 m were analysed. Secondly, to obtain the vegetation dynamics in this area, two satellite images of temporal data sets were used; therefore, SPOT-5 images were obtained in 2004 and 2013. For each data set, four SPOT-5 scenes were placed into approximately 250-km intervals to cover the northwestern coastal land of the Red Sea. Both supervised and non-supervised cataloguing methods were attained towards organise the study area in 4-major land cover classes through using 5 various organizations algorithms. Approximately 900 points were evenly distributed within each SPOT-5 image and used for assessment accuracy. The floristic composition exhibits high diversity with 142 species and seven vegetation types were identified after multivariate analysis (VG I: Acacia tortilis-Acacia ehrenbergiana, VG II: Acacia tortilis-Stipagrostis plumosa, VG III: Zygophyllum coccineum-Zygophyllum simplex, VG IV: Acacia raddiana-Lycium shawii-Anabasis setifera, VG V: Tamarix aucheriana-Juncus rigidus, VG VI: Capparis decidua-Zygophyllum simplex and VG VII: Avicennia marina-Aristida adscensionis) and ranged between halophytic vegetation on the coast to xerophytic vegetation with scattered Acacia trees inland. The dynamic results showed rapid, imbalanced variations arises between 3-land cover classes (areas as urban, vegetation and desert). However, these findings shall serve as the baseline data for the design of rehabilitation programs that conserve biodiversity in arid regions and form treasured resources for an urban planner and decision makers to device bearable usage of land and environmental planning.