pha-2 encodes the C. elegans ortholog of the homeodomain protein HEX and is required for the formation of the pharyngeal isthmus

The pha-2 mutant was isolated in 1993 by Leon Avery in a screen for worms with visible defects in pharyngeal feeding behavior. In pha-2 mutant worms, the pharyngeal isthmus is abnormally thick and short and, in contrast to wild-type worms, harbors several cell nuclei. We show here that pha-2 encodes a homeodomain protein and is homologous to the vertebrate homeobox gene, Hex (also known as Prh). Consistent with a function in pharyngeal development, the pha-2 gene is expressed in the pharyngeal primordium of Caenorhabditis elegans embryos, particularly in pm5 cells that form the bulk of the isthmus. We show that in the pha-2 mutant there is a failure of the pm5 cells to elongate anteriorly while keeping their nuclei within the nascent posterior bulb to form the isthmus during the 3-fold embryonic stage. We also present evidence that pha-2 regulates itself positively in pm5 cells, that it is a downstream target of the forkhead gene pha-4, and that it may also act in the isthmus as an inhibitor of the ceh-22 gene, an Nkx2.5 homolog. Finally, we have begun characterizing the regulation of the pha-2 gene and find that intronic sequences are essential for the complete pha-2 expression profile. The present report is the first to examine the expression and function of an invertebrate Hex homolog, that is, the C. elegans pha-2 gene.     

Multilocus phylogenetic analysis of the genus Aeromonas

A broad multilocus phylogenetic analysis (MLPA) of the representative diversity of a genus offers the opportunity to incorporate concatenated inter-species phylogenies into bacterial systematics. Recent analyses based on single housekeeping genes have provided coherent phylogenies of Aeromonas. However, to date, a multi-gene phylogenetic analysis has never been tackled. In the present study, the intra- and inter-species phylogenetic relationships of 115 strains representing all Aeromonas species described to date were investigated by MLPA. The study included the independent analysis of seven single gene fragments (gyrB, rpoD, recA, dnaJ, gyrA, dnaX, and atpD), and the tree resulting from the concatenated 4705 bp sequence. The phylogenies obtained were consistent with each other, and clustering agreed with the Aeromonas taxonomy recognized to date. The highest clustering robustness was found for the concatenated tree (i.e. all Aeromonas species split into 100% bootstrap clusters). Both possible chronometric distortions and poor resolution encountered when using single-gene analysis were buffered in the concatenated MLPA tree. However, reliable phylogenetic species delineation required an MLPA including several “bona fide” strains representing all described species.     

Fate map of the distal portion of Drosophila proboscis as inferred from the expression and mutations of basic patterning genes

The late-third-instar labial disc is comprised of two disc-proper cell layers, one representing mainly the ventral half of the anterior compartment (L-layer) and the other, the dorsal half of the anterior compartment and most, if not all, of the posterior compartment (M-layer). In the L-layer, Distal-less represses homothorax whereas no Distal-less-dependent homothorax repression occurs in the M-layer where Distal-less is coexpressed with homothorax. In wild-type labial discs, clawless, one of the two homeobox genes expressed in distal cells receiving maximum (Decapentaplegic+Wingless) signaling activity in leg and antennal discs, is specifically repressed by proboscipedia. A fate map, inferred from data on basic patterning gene expression in larval and pupal stages and mutant phenotypes, indicates the inner surface of the labial palpus, which includes the pseudotracheal region, to be a derivative of the distal portion of the M-layer expressing wingless, patched, Distal-less and homothorax. The outer surface of the labial palpus with more than 30 taste bristles derives from an L-layer area consisting of dorsal portions of the anterior and posterior compartments, each expressing Distal-less. Our analysis also indicates that, in adults and pupae, the anterior-posterior boundary, dividing roughly equally the outer surface of the distiproboscis, runs along the outer circumference of the inner surface of distiproboscis.     

Differential Delta expression underlies the diversity of sensory organ patterns among the legs of the Drosophila adult

Many studies have shown that morphological diversity among homologous animal structures is generated by the homeotic (Hox) genes. However, the mechanisms through which Hox genes specify particular morphological features are not fully understood. We have addressed this issue by investigating how diverse sensory organ patterns are formed among the legs of the Drosophila melanogaster adult. The Drosophila adult has one pair of legs on each of its three thoracic segments (the T1-T3 segments). Although homologous, legs from different segments have distinct morphological features. Our focus is on the formation of diverse patterns of small mechanosensory bristles or microchaetae (mCs) among the legs. On T2 legs, the mCs are organized into a series of longitudinal rows (L-rows) precisely positioned along the leg circumference. The L-rows are observed on all three pairs of legs, but additional and novel pattern elements are found on T1 and T3 legs. For example, at specific positions on T1 and T3 legs, some mCs are organized into transverse rows (T-rows). Our studies indicate that the T-rows on T1 and T3 legs are established as a result of Hox gene modulation of the pathway for patterning the L-row mC bristles. Our findings suggest that the Hox genes, Sex combs reduced (Scr) and Ultrabithorax (Ubx), establish differential expression of the proneural gene achaete (ac) by modifying expression of the ac prepattern regulator, Delta (Dl), in T1 and T3 legs, respectively. This study identifies Dl as a potential link between Hox genes and the sensory organ patterning hierarchy, providing insight into the connection between Hox gene function and the formation of specific morphological features.     

Description of Idiomarina insulisalsae sp. nov., isolated from the soil of a sea salt evaporation pond,proposal to transfer the species of the genus Pseudidiomarina to the genus Idiomarina and emended description of the genus Idiomarina

A halophilic, aerobic Gram-negative bacterium, designated strain CVS-6^T, was isolated from a sea salt evaporation pond on the Island of Sal in the Cape Verde Archipelago. Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequence revealed a clear affiliation of the organism with members of the family Idiomarinaceae. Sequence similarities between CVS-6^T and the type strains of the species of the genera Pseudidiomarina and Idiomarina ranged from 93.7% to 96.9%. The major isoprenoid quinone was ubiquinone 8 (Q-8). The major cellular fatty acids were 15:0 iso (21.8%), 17:0 iso (12.5%), 17:1 iso ω9c (10.7%), and 16:1 ω7c (10.6%). The DNA G+C content was 51.6 mol%. The species represented by strain CVS-6^T could be distinguished from the species of the genera Pseudidiomarina and Idiomarina; however, it was not possible to distinguish both genera from each other using the phenotypic or chemotaxonomic characteristics examined. Consequently, we propose that the species classified in the genus Pseudidiomarina should be transferred to the genus Idiomarina. We also propose that, on the basis of physiological and biochemical characteristics, strain CVS-6^T (=LMG 23123=CIP 108836) represents a new species which we name Idiomarina insulisalsae.     

Spatial and temporal regulation of the homeotic selector gene Antennapedia is required for the establishment of leg identity in Drosophila

Antennapedia is one of the homeotic selector genes required for specification of segment identity in Drosophila. Dominant mutations that ectopically express Antennapedia cause transformation of antenna to leg. Loss-of-function mutations cause partial transformation of leg to antenna. Here we examine the role of Antennapedia in the establishment of leg identity in light of recent advances in our understanding of antennal development. In Antennapedia mutant clones in the leg disc, Homothorax and Distal-less are coexpressed and act via spineless to transform proximal femur to antenna. Antennapedia is negatively regulated during leg development by Distal-less, spineless, and dachshund and this reduced Antennapedia expression is needed for the proper development of distal leg elements. These findings suggest that the temporal and spatial regulation of the homeotic selector gene Antennapedia in the leg disc is necessary for normal leg development in Drosophila.     

From the conceptual basis to the discovery of leptin

Two years ago, the Lasker Award was shared by Douglas Coleman and Jeffrey Friedman for their discovery of leptin, a hormone that exerts a key role in the central regulation of appetite and body weight. Douglas Coleman is recognized as the researcher who raised the hypothesis and predicted that a circulating satiety factor was lacking in the ob/ob mouse, and predicted that this factor acted at the hypothalamic level to modulate food intake. After three decades, in an attempt to identify the genes that were mutated in the ob/ob mouse, Jeffrey Friedman found that the ob gene encodes a protein hormone that reverses obesity and other abnormalities of this genetic rodent model of obesity. This discovery was a landmark event in physiology, and revolutionized our understanding of energy homeostasis. This short review aims to summarize the main steps that lead to the identification of leptin, the product of the ob gene.     

New primate first metatarsals from the Paleogene of Egypt and the origin of the anthropoid big toe

The specialized grasping feet of primates, and in particular the nature of the hallucal grasping capabilities of living strepsirrhines and tarsiers (i.e., ‘prosimians’), have played central roles in the study of primate origins. Prior comparative studies of first metatarsal (Mt1) morphology have documented specialized characters in living prosimians that are indicative of a more abducted hallux, which in turn is often inferred to be related to an increased ability for powerful grasping. These include a well-developed peroneal process and a greater angle of the proximal articular surface relative to the long axis of the diaphysis. Although known Mt1s of fossil prosimians share these characters with living non-anthropoid primates, Mt1 morphology in the earliest crown group anthropoids is not well known. Here we describe two Mt1s from the Fayum Depression of Egypt - one from the latest Eocene (from the ∼34 Ma Quarry L-41), and one from the later early Oligocene (from the ∼29-30 Ma Quarry M) - and compare them with a sample of extant and fossil primate Mt1s. Multivariate analyses of Mt1 shape variables indicate that the Fayum specimens are most similar to those of crown group anthropoids, and likely belong to the stem catarrhines Catopithecus and Aegyptopithecus specifically, based on analyses of size. Also, phylogenetic analyses with 16 newly defined Mt1 characters support the hypotheses that “prosimian”-like Mt1 features evolved along the primate stem lineage, while crown anthropoid Mt1 morphology and function is derived among primates, and likely differed from that of basal stem anthropoids. The derived loss of powerful hallucal grasping as reflected in the Mt1 morphology of crown anthropoids may reflect long-term selection for improved navigation of large-diameter, more horizontal branches at the expense of movement in smaller, more variably inclined branches in the arboreal environment.     

Cork-warts on the leaf epidermis of four genera of Celastroidea-Celastraceae

The presence of cork-warts on foliar lamina was first described at end of the 19th century, and since then these warts have been considered an additional taxonomic character for different taxa. In Celastraceae cork-warts have been reported so far only for the genus Euonymus. The objective of this study was to document the presence and morphology of cork-warts in Celastroideae-Celastraceae. The occurrence of cork-warts was investigated by paradermal and transversal views of the leaf epidermis of 15 species from five genera of the Celastroideae subfamily, using histological techniques and optical and scanning electron microscopy. The structures observed in paradermal view are characterized by suberin-incrusted areas forming layers of juxtaposed rectangular cells that originate through tangential divisions and form concentric structures. These structures were classified as either ordinary or stomatal cork-warts. Cork-warts are reported for the first time on Celastrus, Goniodiscus, Maytenus and Plenckia. Among the studied genera, only Fraunhofera lacked cork-warts.     

Studies on the substrate specificity of the T 4 excision repair endonuclease

Previous studies have shown that the v gene of bacteriophage T4 codes for an endonuclease that specifically attacks pyrimidine dimer sites in UV-irradiated DNA. The present studies have examined the role of this endonuclease in the repair of DNA damaged by nitrogen mustard, N-methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (NTG), mitomycin C and 4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide. The observation by Harm that the v gene product of phage T4 facilitates repair of UV damage to the host DNA of excision-repair defective strains enabled us to test whether it does the same with other cellular DNA lesions. It was shown that infection of UV-irradiated E. coliB_s−1 with UV-inactivated phage T4v+ resulted in rescue of a certain fraction of the host cells. However no v gene mediated repair E. coli B_s−1 was observed following treatment with the chemical agents mentioned. Furthermore, though phage T4v₁ is more sensitive to UV-irradiation than phage T4, there was no observed difference in the sensitivity of these phages to nitrogen mustard or NTG. On the basis of these observations it was concluded that the v gene coded endonuclease of T4 is specific for the excision repair of pyrimidine dimers and does not participate in the repair of chemically damaged DNA. In vitro enzymatic degradation of DNA alkylated with nitrogen mustard was observed, but it is probable that this degradation is not part of a repair reaction in vivo.     

Alkaloids in the venom of Messor ants

Tobacco alkaloids of the anabasine type have been found or confirmed in the venom of five species of arid-dwelling Messor ants. They are frequently accompanied by alkylpyrazines. Messor mediorubra contains four alkaloids, with anabasine the major component and also minor pyrazines. Anabasine was found alone in the venom of Messor semirufus and confirmed in Messor ebeninus. Messor rugosus from Tel Aviv contained a mixture of alkaloids and pyrazines, but those from Ein Yahav contained 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine, some 2-phenylethylamine, and N-ethylidene 2-phenylethylamine. Messor arenarius is confirmed as having a complex but variable mixture of alkaloids and pyrazines.     

Phylogenetic and evolutionary analysis of the septin protein family in metazoan

Septins, a conserved family of cytoskeletal GTP-binding proteins, were presented in diverse eukaryotes. Here, a comprehensive phylogenetic and evolutionary analysis for septin proteins in metazoan was carried out. First, we demonstrated that all septin proteins in metazoan could be clustered into four subgroups, and the representative homologue of every subgroup was presented in the non-vertebrate chordate Ciona intestinalis, indicating that the emergence of the four septin subgroups should have occurred prior to divergence of vertebrates and invertebrates, and the expansion of the septin gene number in vertebrates was mainly by the duplication of pre-existing genes rather than by the appearance of new septin subgroup. Second, the direct orthologues of most human septins existed in zebrafish, which suggested that human septin gene repertoire was mainly formed by as far as before the split between fishes and land vertebrates. Third, we found that the evolutionary rate within septin family in mammalian lineage varies significantly, human SEPT1, SEPT 10, SEPT 12, and SEPT 14 displayed a relative elevated evolutionary rate compared with other septin members. Our data will provide new insights for the further function study of this protein family.     

Transmission of Pandora neoaphidis in the presence of co-occurring arthropods

Transmission of the entomopathogenic fungus Pandora neoaphidis to the nettle aphid Microlophium carnosum was assessed in the presence of arthropods that co-exist with the fungus within the habitat but do not compete for aphid hosts. The presence of a parasitoid significantly enhanced transmission, and transmission rates were similar for both enemy and non-enemy parasitoids. Although herbivory of nettle leaves by Peacock butterfly (Inchis io) caterpillars indirectly reduced the number of M. carnosum by >30% due to a reduction in leaf area for feeding, the addition of I. io significantly increased transmission of P. neoaphidis in the remaining aphids. It is likely that enhanced transmission in the presence of A. rhopalosiphii and I. io is due to disturbance and subsequent movement of the aphid, resulting in contact with conidia deposited on the leaf surface. The presence and impact of co-occurring arthropods should be taken into consideration when assessing the transmission of fungal entomopathogens.