物种概念及其界定

半世纪以来,物种概念的定义备受关注,不同研究方向的生物学家提出24种不同或至少有分歧的物种概念,根据其不同的物种概念,物种的界定和物种的数量会出现很大的差异。人们普遍认同:物种是进化分离的微居群谱系,但把谱系分离过程中获得的特征如生殖隔离、可鉴定性、单系统发生等视为鉴定物种次级特征却有不同的声音。该文提出统一的物种概念,把谱系进化分离作为物种界定的唯一而又必要的特征,把谱系分离过程中获得的次级特征作为界定谱系分离的证据。鉴于此,物种概念间的分歧就会化解。其一,物种概念化与物种界定明显分开,不再混淆;其二,谱系的次级特征只与物种界定有关,在某种程度上为谱系分离提供证据;第三,若能把合理解释的任何一个特征作为某物种客观存在的证据,这样更多的特征更能确定谱系分离;最后最重要的是,统一物种概念使我们解放思想,扬弃传统的物种界定标准,探求物种界定的新思路。     

Species concepts and species delimitation

The issue of species delimitation has long been confused with that of species conceptualization, leading to a half century of controversy concerning both the definition of the species category and methods for inferring the boundaries and numbers of species. Alternative species concepts agree in treating existence as a separately evolving metapopulation lineage as the primary defining property of the species category, but they disagree in adopting different properties acquired by lineages during the course of divergence (e.g., intrinsic reproductive isolation, diagnosability, monophyly) as secondary defining properties (secondary species criteria). A unified species concept can be achieved by treating existence as a separately evolving metapopulation lineage as the only necessary property of species and the former secondary species criteria as different lines of evidence (operational criteria) relevant to assessing lineage separation. This unified concept of species has several consequences for species delimitation, including the following: First, the issues of species conceptualization and species delimitation are clearly separated; the former secondary species criteria are no longer considered relevant to species conceptualization but only to species delimitation. Second, all of the properties formerly treated as secondary species criteria are relevant to species delimitation to the extent that they provide evidence of lineage separation. Third, the presence of any one of the properties (if appropriately interpreted) is evidence for the existence of a species, though more properties and thus more lines of evidence are associated with a higher degree of corroboration. Fourth, and perhaps most significantly, a unified species concept shifts emphasis away from the traditional species criteria, encouraging biologists to develop new methods of species delimitation that are not tied to those properties.     

On the integrated frameworks of species concepts: Mayden’s hierarchy of species concepts and de Queiroz’s unified concept of species

Richard L. Mayden and Kevin de Queiroz have devised and developed ‘a hierarchy of species concepts’ and ‘a unified species concept’, respectively. Although their integrated frameworks of species concepts are rather different as to how to integrate the diverse modern concepts of species, the end result is that they are likely to agree on species recognition in nature, because they virtually share the same major components (i.e. evolutionary or lineage concept of species; same way of delimiting species), and have the same important consequences. Both the hierarchical and unified frameworks, however, are interpreted to have shortcoming regarding the way of integrating the modern species concepts. I reformulate these ideas into a framework of species concepts as follows: It treats the idea of species as population‐level evolutionary lineages (sensu Wiley 1978 ) as the concept for species category, and it adopts the contingent biological properties of species (e.g. internal reproductive isolation, diagnosability, monophyly) as operational criteria in delimiting species. I also suggest that existing and revised versions of the integrated framework of species concepts all are not new species concepts, but versions of the evolutionary species concept, because they treat the evolutionary (or lineage) species concept as the concept for species category.     

Effects of successional status, habit, sexual systems, and pollinators on flowering patterns in tropical rain forest trees

Based on data from observations of 302 tree species at La Selva, Costa Rica, we tested a range of hypotheses about the relationship between flowering parameters such as time, frequency, and duration and ecological features such as successional status, habit, sexual systems, and pollen vectors with and without considering the effect of family membership. We predicted that early successional species would flower any time of the year, but species pollinated by different vectors as well as dioecious species would flower nonrandomly across seasons. However, there was little evidence that flowering time varied with successional status, pollen vectors, and sexual systems. As we predicted, supra-annual flowering was proportionately less common in early successional species as compared to late ones, in understory species as compared to canopy species, and in dioecious species as compared to those with hermaphroditic flowers. When considering phylogeny, however, supra-annual flowering in the understory was not as rare as predicted. Our prediction of longer flowering in the early successional species as compared to late successional species was also supported. Predictions about longer flowering of dioecious species as compared to hermaphroditic species and of species pollinated by generalist vectors as compared to the specialists were not supported, though there was a trend in the expected direction.     

Interactive effects of species richness and species traits on functional diversity and redundancy

The importance of species diversity for ecosystem function has emerged as a key question for conservation biology. Recently, there has been a shift from examining the role of species richness in isolation towards understanding how species interact to effect ecosystem function. Here, we briefly review theoretical predictions regarding species contributions to functional diversity and redundancy and further use simulated data to test combined effects of species richness, number of functional traits, and species differences within these traits on unique species contributions to functional diversity and redundancy, as well as on the overall functional diversity and redundancy within species assemblages. Our results highlighted that species richness and species functional attributes interact in their effects on functional diversity. Moreover, our simulations suggested that functional differences among species have limited effects on the proportion of redundancy of species contributions as well as on the overall redundancy within species assemblages, but that redundancy rather was determined by number of traits and species richness. Our simulations finally indicated scale dependence in the relative effects of species richness and functional attributes, which suggest that the relative influence of these factors may affect individual contributions differently compared to the overall ecosystem function of species assemblages. We suggest that studies on the relationship between biological diversity and ecosystem function will benefit from focusing on multiple processes and ecological interactions, and that the relative functional attributes of species will have pivotal roles for the ecosystem function of a given species assembly.     

西双版纳望天树林种子雨9年动态

种子雨是森林生态系统过程的重要组成部分。虽然国内外已有部分关于种子雨的研究, 但多数集中在温带和亚热带地区, 热带地区种子雨的长期监测研究仍显不足。为全面了解热带森林种子雨输入的数量动态和物种组成的长期规律, 本文对我国西双版纳望天树(Parashorea chinensis)林群落水平上9年(2008年5月至2017年4月)的种子雨输入进行了研究。9年共收集到木本植物的种子226种8,993,224粒, 其中大型种子(I-1型) 77种9,779粒; 中型种子(I-2型) 61种24,237粒; 小型种子(I-3型) 72种83,399粒; 粒状微小种子(II-1型) 13种1,215,235粒; 粒状极小种子(II-2型) 1种7,244,667粒; 细丝状种子(II-3型) 2种415,907粒。种子雨输入量排名前10位的优势种贡献了70%以上的种子数量。各类型种子的种子雨输入量均具有年际波动, 呈“大小年”的交替变化, 间隔期为1-2年, 物种组成也呈现一定的年际差异。持续9年的监测中, 每类型种子至少观察到了1次大年结实事件。     

Ethnobotanical studies of plants of Charkotli Hills, Batkhela District, Malakand, Pakistan

A survey was conducted with the aim to document the indigenous information of Charkotli Hills, Batkhela District, Malakand, Pakistan. The area has rich vegetation and a high potential for ethnobotanical utilization. Information was collected on various traditional uses of 100 plants distributed over 49 families, of which 43 families were of dicot, 2 of monocot, 2 of pteridophyta, and 1 of gymnosperms. Most plants have more than one local use. Sixty-six plants were found to be medicinal species, 21 fruit and edible seed species, 11 furniture species, 18 fodder or forage species, 12 vegetable species, 12 fuel species, 11 thatching and building species, 5 hedge or fencing species, 5 timber wood species, 5 poisonous plants, 3 species used in ketchup, 2 fixed oil yielding species, 2 miswak species, 2 species for making sticks for cattle and defense purposes, 2 species cultivated for ornamental purposes, 2 species used as mehindi by girls, 1 irritant species, 1 species for the making of Salai (a little stick for applying ‘surma’ to the eyes), 1 species for tanning, 1 species used as refresher in milk pots, 1 species giving gum used as chewing gum, and 1 species used as insect repellent. The area is under heavy pressure of deforestation and overgrazing, which have reduced the regeneration of woody plants. Proper ecological management is required to protect the wildlife and ethnobotanical resources for the coming generations.     

The stock of invasive insect species and its economic determinants

Invasions of nonindigenous organisms have long been linked to trade, but the contribution of individual trade pathways remains poorly understood, because species are not observed immediately upon arrival and the number of species arriving annually is unknown. Species interception records may count both new arrivals and species long introduced. Furthermore, the stock of invasive insect species already present is unknown. In this study, a state-space model is used to infer the stock of detected as well as undetected invasive insect species established in the United States. A system of equations is estimated jointly to distinguish the patterns of introduction, identification, and eradication. Introductions of invasive species are modeled as dependent on the volume of trade and arrival of people. Identifications depend on the public efforts at invasive species research, as well as on the established stock of invasive species that remain undetected. Eradications of both detected and undetected invasive species depend on containment and quarantine efforts, as well as on the stock of all established invasive species. These patterns are estimated by fitting the predicted number of invasive species detections to the observed record in the North American Non-Indigenous Arthropod Database. The results indicate that agricultural imports are the most important pathway of introduction, followed by immigration of people. Expenditures by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Agricultural Research Service are found to explain the species identification record well. Between three and 38 invasive insect species are estimated to be established in the United States undetected.     

福建省农田生态系统外来入侵植物种类及其分布

为掌握福建省农田生态系统的外来入侵植物种类和分布情况,采用实地调查的方式,对福建省9市农田生态系统中的入侵植物进行调查,并分析了其种类组成、原产地、生活型、分布格局和分布类型及其入侵性等。结果表明,福建省农田生态系统有外来入侵植物30科65属共79种;其中以菊科（Asteraceae）物种数最多,为22种,占总种数的27.85%,其次是苋科（Amaranthaceae）有7种,豆科（Leguminosae）、禾本科（Gramineae）、旋花科（Convolvulaceae）和大戟科（Euphorbiaceae）各有5种。生活型以草本植物为主,占总种数的86.08%;原产于美洲的种类最多,占总种数的70.24%;入侵等级为恶性入侵（1级）的物种有10科22种,严重入侵（2级）有13科22种,局部入侵（3级）、一般入侵（4级）和有待观察类（5级）分别有9、18和8种;恶性入侵和严重入侵的植物种类占入侵植物总数的55.70%。从分布格局和分布类型来看,以福州市的农田生态系统入侵植物种类最多,为52种;不同农田类型中,以旱地中的入侵植物种数最多,有74种;按分布区域划分的全域分布种共13种,按农田类型划分的全域分布种有11种。因此,福建省农田生态系统入侵植物种类繁多,分布广泛,原产地多元化,且恶性和严重入侵植物占比较高,入侵形势严峻,应加强入侵植物的动态监控与防范,以保护生物多样性和生态安全。     

A Preliminary Investigation on the Status of the Wildlife Trade in Guangxi,China

1IntroductionWildlifetradeisamain~mpetustoutilizewildlife.Thechangeinspeciesandvolumein-volvedinthewildlifetrademayreflectconservationstatus,dynamicsandexploitedlevelofwildliferesources.Thestudyonwildlifetradeisthetheoriticalbasisonwhichproposalsastolimittradeonrareorendangeredspeciescanbemade,andwithwhichfuturemonitoringofthetradecanbecompared.Theresultalsocanbeusedtoevaluateconservationeffectsofprotectionmeasuresandlawsforbiodiversityconservation.Itisofgreatsignificanceinguid-ingsustainable…     

Tree heterogeneity,resource availability,and larger scale processes regulating arboreal ant species richness

Abstract Processes acting on different spatial and temporal scales may influence local species richness. Ant communities are usually described as interactive and therefore determined by local processes. In this paper we tested two hypotheses linked to the question of why there is local variation in arboreal ant species richness in the Brazilian savanna (‘cerrado’). The hypotheses are: (i) there is a positive relationship between ant species richness and tree species richness, used as a surrogate of heterogeneity; and (ii) there is a positive relationship between ant species richness and tree density, used as a surrogate of resource availability. Arboreal ants were sampled in two cerrado sites in Brazil using baited pitfall traps and manual sampling, in quadrats of 20 m × 50 m. Ant species richness in each quadrat was used as the response variable in regression tests, using tree species richness and tree density as explanatory variables. Ant species richness responded positively to tree species richness and density. Sampling site also influenced ant species richness, and the relationship between tree density and tree species richness was also positive and significant. Tree species richness may have influenced ant species richness through three processes: (i) increasing the variety of resources and allowing the existence of a higher number of specialist species; (ii) increasing the amount of resources to generalist species; and (iii) some other unmeasured factor may have influenced both ant and tree species richness. Tree density may also have influenced ant species richness through three processes: (i) increasing the amount of resources and allowing a higher ant species richness; (ii) changing habitat conditions and dominance hierarchies in ant communities; and (iii) increasing the area and causing a species–area pattern. Processes acting on larger scales, such as disturbance, altitude and evolutionary histories, as well as sampling effect may have caused the difference between sites.     

The use of wild edible plants in western and central Anatolia (Turkey)

In this study, 121 wild edible plants used as food in Anatolia were surveyed to determine the plant parts used and their detailed preparation methods. The results of this study show that the plants may be boiled, fried in fat, and eaten raw or as rolled vegetables. They may also be consumed as pickles, fruits, sweets and spices, and drunk as cold and hot drinks. Thirty species (8 genera) were identified as belonging to the Lamiaceae family, 15 species (15 genera) belong to the Asteraceae family, 13 species (5 genera) belong to the Rosaceae family, 8 species (7 genera) belong to the Brassicaceae family, 6 species (3 genera) belong to the Orchidaceae family and 5 species (5 genera) belong to the Apiaceae family. The genera represented by the highest number of species in the study are as follows:Sideritis L. is represented by 13 species, Origanum L. by 7 species,Rubus L. by 5 species,Thymus L. by 4 species andRumex L. by 4 species.     

利用红外相机网络调查古田山自然保护区的兽类及雉类多样性

2014年5月至2015年4月,采用红外相机技术系统地调查了浙江省古田山国家级自然保护区内大中型地栖兽类和鸟的多样性组成。调查共获得244个有效位点的数据,其中兽类和雉类的照片视频共67 086份,有效探测数16 129次,包括分属6目15科的野生兽类21种、野生雉类5种、家畜及家禽4种。记录到雉类以外的其它鸟类52种,分属6目15科。在野生兽类和雉类中,国家一级重点保护野生动物2种,分别为黑麂（Muntiacus crinifrons）、白颈长尾雉（Syrmaticus ellioti）,国家二级重点保护野生动物7种,合计占物种总数的35%。IUCN物种红色名录评估为“易危VU”的物种2种,“近危NT”的物种5种,合计占物种总数的27%。中国生物多样性红色名录评估为“濒危”的动物1种,“易危”7种,“近危”5种,合计占物种总数的50%。独立探测数最高的兽类为小麂（Muntiacus reevesi）,雉类为白鹇。调查显示古田山保护区内受威胁的野生兽类和雉类的比例较高。本次调查将红外相机均匀布设于整个保护区,持续时长一年,全面监测保护区内兽类和雉类的物种组成与相对多度,为古田山保护区后续的科研项目和科学管理提供了重要依据。     

Responses of biotic interactions of dominant and subordinate species to decadal warming and simulated rotational grazing in Tibetan alpine meadow

Warming increases competition among plant species in alpine communities by ameliorating harsh environmental conditions, such as low temperatures. Grazing, as the main human activity, may mitigate the effect of warming, as previously reported. However, it is critical to refine the effects of warming on biotic interactions among species, for example, by taking the competitive ability of species into consideration. Based on a 10-year warming and grazing experiment in a Tibetan alpine meadow, we evaluated interspecific biotic interactions of dominant and subordinate species, using the approach of interspecific spatial associations. Warming significantly increased competition between subordinate and dominant species as well as among subordinate species, but not among dominant species. Moreover, facilitation of dominant-subordinate species also increased under warming. Simulated rotational grazing had similar effects to warming, with increasing interspecific competition. Our results show that, when studying the effects of warming on biotic interactions among species, it is necessary to characterize different species pairs relative to their competitive ability, and that simulated rotational grazing does not mitigate the effects of warming in the long term. Our results also provide evidence that the spatial pattern of species is a critical mechanism in species coexistence.     

The cladistic solution to the species problem

The correct explanation of why species, in evolutionary theory, are individuals and not classes is the cladistic species concept. The cladistic species concept defines species as the group of organisms between two speciation events, or between one speciation event and one extinction event, or (for living species) that are descended from a speciation event. It is a theoretical concept, and therefore has the virtue of distinguishing clearly the theoretical nature of species from the practical criteria by which species may be recognized at any one time. Ecological or biological (reproductive) criteria may help in the practical recognition of species. Ecological and biological species concepts are also needed to explain why cladistic species exist as distinct lineages, and to explain what exactly takes place during a speciation event. The ecological and biological species concepts work only as sub-theories of the cladistic species concept and if taken by themselves independently of cladism they are liable to blunder. The biological species concept neither provides a better explanation of species indivudualism than the ecological species concept, nor, taken by itself, can the biological species concept even be reconciled with species individualism. Taking the individuality of species seriously requires subordinating the biological, to the cladistic, species concept.     

Ethnobotanical studies of plants of Charkotli Hills, Batkhela District, Malakand, Pakistan

A survey was conducted with the aim to document the indigenous information of Charkotli Hills, Batkhela District, Malakand, Pakistan. The area has rich vegetation and a high potential for ethnobotanical utiliza-tion. Information was collected on various traditional uses of 100 plants distributed over 49 families, of which 43 families were of dicot, 2 of monocot, 2 of pteridophyta, and 1 of gymnosperms. Most plants have more than one local use. Sixty-six plants were found to be medicinal species, 21 fruit and edible seed species, 11 furniture species, 18 fodder or forage species, 12 vegetable species, 12 fuel species, 11 thatching and building species, 5 hedge or fencing species, 5 timber wood species, 5 poisonous plants, 3 species used in ketchup, 2 fixed oil yielding species, 2 miswak species, 2 species for making sticks for cattle and defense purposes, 2 species cultivated for ornamental purposes, 2 species used as mehindi by girls, 1 irritant species, 1 species for the making of Salai (a little stick for applying 'surma' to the eyes), 1 species for tanning, 1 species used as refresher in milk pots, 1 species giving gum used as chewing gum, and 1 species used as insect repellent. The area is under heavy pressure of deforestation and overgrazing, which have reduced the regeneration of woody plants. Proper ecological manage-ment is required to protect the wildlife and ethnobotanical resources for the coming generations.     

通过红色名录评估探讨中国爬行动物受威胁现状及原因

为了评估中国爬行动物红色名录, 我们按照爬行动物生物学特性, 适当修改了IUCN濒危物种红色名录标准Version 3.1。在此基础上, 评估了中国爬行动物生存现状, 参与编制了《中国生物多样性红色名录——脊椎动物卷》。此次评估的中国爬行动物有3目32科133属461种, 结果为: 区域灭绝(RE) 2种、极危(CR) 34种、濒危(EN) 37种、易危(VU) 66种、近危(NT) 78种、无危(LC) 175种以及数据缺乏(DD) 69种。中国受威胁(包括极危、濒危、易危)的爬行动物共计137种, 约占总数的29.72%, 包括龟鳖目31种、有鳞目蛇亚目67种、蜥蜴亚目38种和鳄形目1种, 高于2014年《IUCN濒危物种红色名录》评估的世界爬行动物受威胁比例(13.61%)。在所有受威胁物种中, 受威胁比例最高的类群是鳄形目(100%)和龟鳖目(91.18%), 其次是有鳞目蛇亚目(28.39%), 第三是有鳞目蜥蜴亚目(20.21%)。中国爬行动物特有种受威胁物种有39种, 占特有种总数(143种)的27.27%, 占受威胁物种总数(137)的28.47%。长江以南的华南和西南地区受威胁的物种最多。爬行动物受人类干扰严重, 主要表现为: 栖息地质量退化及生境破碎化、过度利用及污染和气候变化等。尽管自1989年《中华人民共和国野生动物保护法》实施以来, 一些中国濒危爬行动物的生存状况得到改善。但鉴于中国爬行动物区系的独特性和多样性、地形地貌的复杂性及社会经济发展的不均衡性, 为了维持区域生态安全和资源可持续利用, 拯救中国濒危爬行动物, 尤其是中国特有爬行动物中的极危物种, 是中国动物保护工作最迫切的任务之一。     

The species concept as an emergent property of population biology

Resurgent interest in the genetics of population divergence and speciation coincides with recent critical evaluation of species concepts and proposals for species delimitation. An important result of these parallel trends is a slight but important conceptual shift in focus away from species diagnoses based on prior species concepts or definitions, and toward analyses of the processes acting on lineages of metapopulations that eventually lead to differences recognizable as species taxa. An advantage of this approach is that it identifies quantitative metapopulation differences in continuous variables, rather than discrete entities that do or do not conform to a prior species concept, and species taxa are recognized as an emergent property of population-level processes. The tension between species concepts and diagnosis versus emergent recognition of species taxa is at least as old as Darwin, and is unlikely to be resolved soon in favor of either view, because the products of both approaches (discrete utilitarian taxon names for species, process-based understanding of the origins of differentiated metapopulations) continue to have important applications.     

中国秋海棠属植物的传统利用

秋海棠属植物除了具有较高的观赏价值外,在中国还作为药用、食用、饮料和饲料等被利用。本文应用民族植物学研究方法,通过野外调查、文献和标本收集整理和研究,共记载了中国产26种秋海棠属植物被作为药用、食用、饮料和饲料加以利用。在所记载的26种国产秋海棠属植物中,有24种作药用,8种作食用(蔬菜)或饮料,5种作饲料。3种作饮料的种类在其自然分布地被广泛利用。9种秋海棠作为多种用途加以利用,其中8种既被作为药用、食用和饮料,也被作为饲料加以利用。本研究还表明,国产秋海棠属植物中,有些种类由于过度采集利用或其它因素已变得稀有或濒危。由此提出,合理开发利用和有效保护应成为今后中国秋海棠属植物研究的重要内容。