Sense-organ-like parietal pits found in Psammophiini (Serpentes,Colubridae)

In several psammophine snake species, small sense-organ-like pits have been discovered occurring on the top of the head. These pits show a heretofore non-described structure. In numbers of one to four per head, they are present in Dromophis lineatus, Malpolon monspessulanus, several Psammophis species and Rhamphiophis rubropunctatus, but not in all individuals which is unrelated to sex. The reason for their sporadic occurrence remains obscure. Their equally obscure function is discussed in relation to the presumed functions of already known upper-head 'pits' in snakes. A histological study is in preparation.     

Unusual labial glands in snakes of the genus Geophis Wagler, 1830 (Serpentes: Dipsadinae)

Geophis belongs to the goo‐eating dipsadine assemblage of snakes that are known to feed exclusively on earthworms, snails, and slugs. Although the unusual feeding strategies of the goo‐eating dipsadines are well known (but poorly documented), little attention has been paid to their internal anatomy. Here, we describe a new and noteworthy morphological and histochemical condition of the infralabial glands in three species of Geophis (G. brachycephalus, G. nasalis and G. semidoliatus), all earthworm feeders. Their infralabial glands are constituted of two distinct parts: an anterolateral portion composed of mucous and seromucous cells that stretches from the tip of the dentary to the corner of the mouth, and a tubular posteromedial portion that is exclusively seromucous. The anterolateral portion receives fibers of the levator anguli oris muscle that attaches on its posterodorsal extremity while the posteromedial portion extends posteriorly to the corner of the mouth where it receives fibers of the adductor mandibulae externus medialis muscle. Furthermore, the posteromedial portion of the infralabial gland is constituted by large acini filled with secretion that is periodic acid‐Schiff positive. These acini release their secretion directly into a large lumen located in the middle of the glandular portion. In the three species examined, the supralabial glands show a traditional configuration, being constituted of mucous and seromucous cells and retaining an enlarged part in its caudal region that resembles a Duvernoy's gland. The presence in Geophis of an expanded lumen in part of the infralabial gland that is compressed by an adjacent muscle suggests a more specialized role for the secretion produced by these glands that may not be related to envenomation but rather to prey transport and mucus control. J. Morphol. 275:87–99, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Presence of gular and parietal pits in Atretium schistosum (Serpentes, Colubridae), a singular trait not exclusive to psammophine snakes

The sporadic occurrence of localised pits on parietal plates was recently discovered in different colubrid genera of the subfamily Psammophiinae; these were considered to play a role in sensory perception. In the present study, we describe the presence of similar structures in Atretium schistosum, another colubrid snake reportedly not belonging to the Psammophiinae. As this species is suspected of being phylogenetically distantly related to psammophine snakes, some hypotheses are provided to explain (1) the putative function of these pits, (2) their sporadic occurrence, and (3) to suggest when they may have evolved in the colubroid snake clade.     

Position of Pharyngeal Gland Outlets in Monhysteridae (Nemata)

In this study an attempt was made to determine the position of the outlets and nuclei of the pharyngeal glands in four monhysterid genera. Five Eumonhystera spp., seven Monhystera spp., and eight Monhystrella spp. were studied under the light microscope. Longitudinal sections of an undescribed Monhystera sp. and cross sections of Geomonhystera disjuncta were also studied under the scanning and transmission electron microscope, respectively. The results of the light microscopic studies were inconclusive about the position of the outlets but showed a number of nuclei in the basal part of the pharynx. The scanning and transmission electron microscopic studies revealed five pharyngeal glands and their outlets; their position was as follows: dorsal gland outlet at the base of buccal tooth, first pair of ventrosublateral gland outlets halfway along the pharynx, and second pair of ventrosublateral gland outlets close to the base of the pharynx. It is concluded that at least three, and possibly five, nuclei are in the basal part of the pharynx. This pattern, in the position of the outlets and nuclei, is similar to that in Caenorhabditis elegans (Maupas, 1900) Dougherty, 1953 and may well be the basic plan in the Class Chromadorea (including Secernentia as a subclass).     

Snake relationships revealed by slow-evolving proteins: a preliminary survey

We present an initial evaluation of relationships among a diverse sample of 215 species of snakes (8% of the world snake fauna) representing nine of the 16 commonly-recognized families. Allelic variation at four slow-evolving. protein-coding loci, detected by starch-gel electrophoresis, was found to be informative for estimating relationships among these species at several levels. The numerous alleles detected at these loci [ Arp -2 (42 alleles). Ltlh -2 (43), Mdh -1 (29), Pgm (Z)] provided unexpected clarity in partitioning these taxa. Most congeneric species and several closely-related genera have the same allele at all four loci or differ at only a single locus. At thc other extreme are those species with three or four unique alleles; these taxa cannot be placed in this analysis. Species sharing two or three distinctive alleles are those most clearly separated into clades. Typhlopids, pythonids, viperids, and elapids were resolved into individual clades. whereas bods were separated into boincs and erycines, and colubrids appeared as scveral distinct clades (colubrines, natricines, psammophines, homalopsines, and xenodontines). Viperids were recognized as a major division containing three separate clades: Asian and American crotalines. Pabearctic and Oriental viperines, and Ethiopian causines. The typhlopids were found to be the basal clade, with the North American erycine boid Chrrrino and the West Indian woodsnakes Tropidophi, Y near the base. A number of species and some small clades were not allocated because of uninformative (common, unique, or conflicting) alleles. Of the 21 S species examined, five to eight appear to have been misplaced in the analysis of these electrophoretic data.     

Male cephalic labial gland secretions of two bumblebee species of the subgenus Cullumanobombus (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus latreille) and their distribution in central Europe

The cephalic labial gland secretion of Bombus semenoviellus males was analyzed, and its chemical composition is reported for the first time. The secretion functions as sex or marking pheromone. Eighty compounds were identified in the secretion, the main one being all-trans-geranylgeranyl acetate (48%). The same compound was shown to form 87% of the labial gland secretion of B. cullumanus males. Both species are closely related and belong to the subgenus Cullumanobombus.     

Adaptive significance of food income in European snakes: body size is related to prey energetics

Feeding strategies and diet patterns have been extensively investigated in vertebrates and, more specifically, in snakes. Although it has been hypothesized that prey species may differ in terms of energy content, almost no theoretical or practical study has been carried out to determine actual nutritional values of the common prey types of wild snakes. Our model taxa were a selection of widely distributed and well known European snake species, which have all been studied in depth: approximately 76% of their diet is composed of mammals, reptiles, and insects. We therefore selected a single model species for each of these categories and proceeded with the analyses. Nutritional values were determined using a standard procedure: lizards and mice were richer in proteins than insects (crickets); insects and mice were richer in lipids than lizards, and mice and crickets have a higher energy content than lizards; lizards were rich in ashes. We then applied our experimental results to a selected sample of European terrestrial snakes (11 populations, ten species, seven genera, two families) characterized by different body size (50–160 cm total length) and reproductive strategies (oviparous versus viviparous), aiming to correlate these parameters with patterns of energy income. A direct relationship was found between body mass/body length ratio (BCI, body condition index) and meal energetics: the higher the BCI, the higher was the metabolic requirement, whereas BCI was independent of species or of reproductive system effect. Large‐sized snakes thus need a highly diversified and more energy‐rich diet than smaller snakes, supporting previous hypotheses. The simple applicability of this method could be of valuable support in further comparative research work, reducing experimental costs and stimulating further ecological, behavioural, and, possibly, phylogenetic comparisons. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 100 , 307–317.     

中国小头蛇属(蛇亚目,游蛇科)的分类修订

基于40号标本的形态研究,对中国小头蛇属Oligodon进行分类修订。四线小头蛇Oligodon taeniatus(Güther,1861)在中国没有分布,当初发表该纪录所依据的3号标本为紫棕小头蛇指名亚种Oligodon cinereus cinereus(Güther,1864);中国记录的管状小头蛇Oligodon cyclurus(Cantor,1839)应订正为束纹小头蛇Oligodon fascioatus(Güther,1864)。根据色斑、鳞被和半阴茎等综合特征,提出中国记录的喜山小头蛇Oligodon albocinctus包括2个物种,其中云南省陇川县标本为喜山小头蛇Oligodon albcinctus(Cantor,1839),而西藏墨脱县标本是尚未明确的小头蛇属未定种Oligodonsp.,其分类地位有待进一步研究。最后,提供中国分布的小头蛇属物种检索表。     

Diversity of gymnamoebae (Rhizopoda, Gymnamoebia) in a rain-water pool

The diversity of species of gymnamoebae in a single sample from a rain-water pool in Bratislava (Slovakia) was investigated. To maximize the recovery of species, six enrichment cultivation media were used. A total of 12 taxa, representing five families and eight genera of Gymnamoebia, were recovered.     

The cephalic glands of Brazilian reptilia and amphibia. IV. Histology of labial, premaxillary, and Duvernoy's glands in the colubrid snake Oxyrhopus trigeminus

A study of the morphology of the salivary glands of the colubrid snake Oxyrhopus trigeminus showed the following: The acini of supralabial, infralabial, and premaxillary glands are formed by mucous and mucoserous cells; the tubules of Duvernoy's gland are formed by seromucous cells; and mucous cells produce neutral and acid mucosubstances, mucoserous cells secrete neutral and acid mucosubstances and protein, and seromucous cells have neutral mucosubstance and protein secretions.     

Uncovering head gland diversity in neotropical Polistinae wasps (Hymenoptera,Vespidae): Comparative analysis and description of new glands

Exocrine glands are involved in several wasp colony activities; however, the number of known glands in the Vespidae is rather low when compared to other social insect groups. The aim of this study is to survey the head of Neotropical social wasps and to provide a detailed comparative study of the glands found in the Polistinae. A total of 33 species distributed over 13 genera were studied with serial histological sections of the head, excluding the labiomaxillary complex. Additionally, the exoskeleton was explored using scanning electron microscopy looking for associated modifications. A total of eleven exocrine glands were observed, five are structures recorded for the first time for the Hymenoptera, three are new records for the Polistinae and three are previously known organs. The glands studied are: ocellar gland I, ocellar gland II, periocular gland, subantennal gland, hypopharyngeal gland, clypeal gland, posterobasal genal gland, ectal mandibular gland, mesal mandibular gland, intramandibular gland I, and intramandibular gland II. The widespread distribution of most of these glands suggests an origin prior to the evolution of the Polistinae. Our results highlight the importance of detailed morphological studies to unveil the significance of chemical communication in one of the most characteristic groups of social animals.     

Ophidian cephalic glands

A survey of the comparative morphology and histology of the twelve glands in the ophidian head was made. The nasal and Harderian glands are the only non-oral glands. The premaxillary, supralabial, posterior, Duvernoy's and venom glands are serially homologous. The infralabial, sublingual and supralingual glands are not related to the other oral glands. The relationships of the temporomandibular and anterior temporal glands to the other oral glands could not be determined. For each gland a synonymy of previously used names, its approximate location within the head and its distribution within the various groups of the Ophidia is given. The general histological picture of most of the glands is illustrated and available information on their embryology and innervation is summarized.     

Immunologic distinctiveness of archaebacteria that grow in high salt.

The antigenic fingerprints of eight halophilic archaebacteria representing the groups recently outlined by molecular and chemical analyses were determined with calibrated antibody probes. Comparison with the antigenic fingerprints of methanogens encompassing all described families and most genera demonstrated that these two archaebacterial groups are themselves antigenically coherent but immunologically distinct.     

The homology of cranial glands in turtles: with special reference to the nomenclature of salt glands

The cranial glands of ten species of turtles were studied by the use of histochemistry applied to serial sections of whole heads. The majority were stenohaline species, but one brackish water form, Malaclemys, was included. The results show that all species have two major orbital glands, an anterior Harderian gland, and a posterior lachrymal gland. The latter is seromucous in all species except Malaclemys terrapin in which the gland shows little evidence or organic secretion. External and medial nasal glands are found in all species studied, and also are seromucous glands. With these reslts, combined with a review of the literature the following conclusions are made. The Harderian gland is by definition the orbital gland opening through the medial surface of the nictitating membrane at or near the anterior canthus. It is of constant occurrence, and histological appearance, probably serving the same function. However, despite much recent study this function remains unknown. The lachrymal gland is defined as the orbital gland which opens through the lateral surface of the nictitating membrane, or medial surface of the lower eyelid, at or near the posterior canthus. It is of variable occurrence, absent in many reptiles, and has a histological structure which is also variable. In the stenohaline species it is apparently involved in organic secretion, while in the brackish water Malaclemys it may be involved in salt secretion, as it is in Cheloniidae. The nasal glands in turtles are probably homologous with the nasal salt glands of lizards and birds, but they do not appear to subserve the same function. In all species of turtles studied the nasal glands are seromucous. They are perhaps involved in the maintenance of the epithelium of the olfactory cavity.     

Source of the host marking pheromone in the egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae)

After oviposition, Trissolcus basalis females always mark the host's surface, depositing host marking substances for herself and to warn other ovipositing females. The perception of these host marking substances, probably through the antennae, can induce the female to leave and seek healthy hosts. Parasitoid females exposed to conspecific parasitized egg masses left the host egg masses significantly more often than when exposed to non-parasitized egg masses. More egg mass leaving behavior also was observed when the egg masses were treated with Dufour's gland secretion but not when treated with secretion from the common oviducts. The common oviduct has a secretory epithelium that produces electron-dense vesicles, probably containing proteinaceous substances. The secretory cells of the accessory gland, Dufour's gland, contain electron-lucid vesicles, whose secretion appears to be a lipid similarly to that found in pheromone secreting glands. Ultrastructural and behavioral evidence suggests that Dufour's gland is the host marking pheromone source.     

Use of Dufour's gland secretion in nest defence and brood nutrition by hover wasps (Hymenoptera, Stenogastrinae)

Social wasps of the subfamily Stenogastrinae produce an abdominal secretion that is used in two distinct biological contexts. First, the secretion plays an important role in larval nutrition where it serves as a substrate in which food is placed by the adults for eventual consumption by the larvae. Second, in several species, females apply the same secretion to the substrate on which their nests are constructed, where it constitutes a sticky barrier that defends the immature brood from predation by ants. This paper describes for the first time ant guard construction behaviour of three species of stenogastrine wasps belonging to the genera Eustenogaster and Liostenogaster. The identification of compounds making up these secretions was also performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Ant guards and brood secretions were similar, with saturated and unsaturated long chain hydrocarbons and alcohols as major components. We further confirm that the glandular source of abdominal secretion is the Dufour's gland. This gland contains the same hydrocarbons, and in the same proportions as ant guards and brood secretion. We discuss the fundamental importance of Dufour's gland secretion in the social life of these wasps by comparing species with and without ant guards within the subfamily.     

Chromosome numbers and generic relationships in subtribe Stephanomeriinae (Compositae: Ichorieae)

Chromosome numbers are reported from over 230 populations representing species in eight genera. First counts are reported for three species ofStephanomeria, five species ofLygodesmia, and one species ofPinaropappus. Base chromosome numbers,x = 6, 7, 8, and 9 are known in the subtribe;x = 9 is found in six of the 12 genera and presumably is the ancestral base number for the subtribe. Two phyletic lines, aMalacothrix line and aStephanomeria line are recognized on morphological grounds. A key to the 12 genera is provided.     

麝泌香盛期麝香腺超微结构和麝香分泌研究

雄麝特有的麝香腺,由于分泌行使化学通讯机能的信息素(Pheromone)麝香,结构特异。长期以来,国内外对麝香腺的结构和麝香分泌研究甚少,只有解剖学方面的简单描述,故对麝香分泌机理和泌香规律众说纷纭。我国最早(1958)进行过人工养麝和活体取香。随着养麝业的发展,近年对麝香腺进行了解剖、组织学(毕书增等,1980;冯文和等,1981;郑生武等,1984)和泌香机理研究(毕书增等,1980;李复东,1980;颜于宏等,1981),对麝香的分泌、形成与泌香规律有了进一步的认识,但缺乏全面系统的研究,特别在超微结构的研究方面尚属空白。     

The evolution of venom-delivery systems in snakes

The Colubroidea represents approximately 2300 of the 2700 species of living snakes and includes all venomous taxa. Although many morphological studies of colubroid snakes have been carried over the last hundred years, the phylogenetic relationships within this group are poorly known. In this study, components of the venom-delivery system (VDS) were examined within the context of two conflicting phylogenetic hypotheses proposed in 1988 by Cadle and in 1998 by Kraus & Braun. The results suggest that several major morphological changes occurred early in colubroid evolution: a Duvernoy's gland evolved, the posterior maxillary teeth became specialized relative to the anterior maxillary teeth, and the attachment of the pterygoideus muscle moved forward to a position associated with the posterior maxillary teeth. These innovations may have allowed the great radiation of colubroid snakes that led to the Colubroidea representing such a large percentage of living snakes. More recently, three separate lineages of colubroids have independently evolved highly specialized front-fanged VDSs with large and complex venom glands, venom gland compressor muscles, and tubular fangs.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2003, 137 , 337−354.     

Annotated checklist of Iranian Hydrophilidae (Coleoptera: Polyphaga: Hydrophiloidea)

This checklist comprises all species of Hydrophilidae (Coleoptera: Hydrophiloidea) quoted in the literature referring to Iran and confirmed by our study. In total, 104 species within 17 genera and five subfamilies, Hydrophilinae (eight genera, 63 species), Chaetarthriinae (three genera, five species), Enochrinae (single genus, 20 species), Acidocerinae (single genus, three species) and Sphaeridiinae (four genera, 13 species), are listed for the fauna of Iran. Three species are endemic; four species are recorded here for the first time from Iran, and nine species are excluded from Iranian fauna.