Applying social and ecological approaches to evaluate factors influencing river otter (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lontra canadensis</Emphasis>) visitation to fish-rearing facilities in Pennsylvania

In Pennsylvania the production of game and other fish species is a $1.6 billion industry, and loss from depredation can take a serious toll on fish stocks and associated revenues. Following a reintroduction project and natural expansion of native populations, river otters (Lontra canadensis) are now widely distributed throughout Pennsylvania. To determine occurrence and extent of depredation by river otters, we conducted telephone or mail surveys with 156 (80%) of Pennsylvania’s 196 fish-rearing facilities. River otters were reported in the vicinity of 50 (32%) facilities, of which 23 (46%) reported river otter visitation. Of the facilities that reported river otter visitation, most (87%) reported losing <5% of fish stock to otters and 91% reported an annual economic loss of <$500 from river otter depredation. Binary logistic regression determined that greater amounts of tree cover (%), facilities that reared >100,000 fish annually, and private facilities were more likely to experience visitation by river otters. Our results demonstrate that the existence of river otter populations in Pennsylvania does not appear to be a significant economic threat to fish-rearing facilities and physical and landscape characteristics of the facilities are important in determining the likelihood of river otter visitation.     

Molecular evidence for hybridization between invasive <Emphasis Type="Italic">Solidago canadensis</Emphasis> and native <Emphasis Type="Italic">S</Emphasis>. <Emphasis Type="Italic">virgaurea</Emphasis>

Hybridization between alien and native species is biologically very important and could lead to genetic erosion of native taxa. Solidago × niederederi was discovered over a century ago in Austria and described by Khek as a natural hybrid between the alien (nowadays regarded also as invasive) S. canadensis and native S. virgaurea. Although interspecific hybridization in the genus Solidago is considered to be relatively common, hybrid nature of S. × niederederi has not been independently proven using molecular tools, to date. Because proper identification of the parentage for the hybrid Solidago individuals solely based on morphological features can be misleading, in this paper we report an additive polymorphism pattern expressed in the ITS sequences obtained from individuals representing S. × niederederi, and confirm the previous hypothesis that the parental species of this hybrid are S. canadensis and S. virgaurea. Additionally, based on variability at the cpDNA rpl32-trnL locus, we showed that in natural populations hybridization occurs in both directions.     

New combinations and typifications in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bistorta</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Persicaria</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polygonum,</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rumex</Emphasis> (Polygonaceae)

New combinations are proposed in anticipation of the Polygonaceae treatment in the forthcoming volume of Intermountain Flora: Polygonum kelloggii var. esotericum, P. kelloggii var. watsonii , Rumex densiflorus var. pycnanthus , R. salicifolius var. utahensis, and R. occidentalis var. tomentellus. Typifications are proposed to facilitate ongoing studies in Polygonaceae and to maintain current usage.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>1<Emphasis Type="Italic">/copia</Emphasis>- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>3<Emphasis Type="Italic">/gypsy</Emphasis>-like DNA sequences in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthus </Emphasis>species

Two repeated DNA sequences isolated from a partial genomic DNA library of Helianthus annuus, p HaS13 and p HaS211, were shown to represent portions of the int gene of a Ty3 /gypsy retroelement and of the RNase-Hgene of a Ty1 /copia retroelement, respectively. Southern blotting patterns obtained by hybridizing the two probes to BglII- or DraI-digested genomic DNA from different Helianthus species showed p HaS13 and p HaS211 were parts of dispersed repeats at least 8 and 7 kb in length, respectively, that were conserved in all species studied. Comparable hybridization patterns were obtained in all species with p HaS13. By contrast, the patterns obtained by hybridizing p HaS211 clearly differentiated annual species from perennials. The frequencies of p HaS13- and p HaS211-related sequences in different species were 4.3x10(4)-1.3x10(5) copies and 9.9x10(2)-8.1x10(3) copies per picogram of DNA, respectively. The frequency of p HaS13-related sequences varied widely within annual species, while no significant difference was observed among perennial species. Conversely, the frequency variation of p HaS211-related sequences was as large within annual species as within perennials. Sequences of both families were found to be dispersed along the length of all chromosomes in all species studied. However, Ty3 /gypsy-like sequences were localized preferentially at the centromeric regions, whereas Ty1/ copia-like sequences were less represented or absent around the centromeres and plentiful at the chromosome ends. These findings suggest that the two sequence families played a role in Helianthusgenome evolution and species divergence, evolved independently in the same genomic backgrounds and in annual or perennial species, and acquired different possible functions in the host genomes.     

Benefits of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helicobacter pylori</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">cagE</Emphasis> genotyping in addition to <Emphasis Type="Italic">cagA</Emphasis> genotyping: a Bulgarian study

Associations of Helicobacter pylori cagE status with complex patient characteristics remain to be elucidated in Eastern Europe. The aim of this study was to assess the frequencies of cagE gene and cagA/cagE combinations in H. pylori strains from symptomatic Bulgarian patients and to improve cagA detection. cagA and cagE genotypes were evaluated in 219 patients with single-strain infections. In total, 84.9% of strains were cagA ⁺, while 68.5% were cagE ⁺. cagA ⁺, cagE ⁺, and cagA ⁺/cagE ⁺ strains were more prevalent in peptic ulcer (93.8%, 84.4%, and 84.4%) compared with nonulcer patients (81.3%, 61.9%, and 61.3%, respectively). In elderly patients, cagE ⁺ and cagA ⁺/cagE ⁺ strains were 1.9-fold more common than in the 12 children evaluated. Only 10% of the elderly subjects harbored low-virulence cagA ⁺/cagE ⁻ strains compared with 16.8% of adults and 41.7% of children. Intriguingly, prevalence of the cagA ⁺/cagE ⁻ genotype was 2.1-fold lower in men than in women, suggesting a higher frequency of more virulent strains in men. The presence of both cag genes and combinations was not linked to strain susceptibility to clarithromycin or metronidazole, place of residence, or prior therapy. Use of an extra primer pair increased cagA detection in 14.7% of 31 cagA ⁻ strains. In conclusion, use of a second primer pair for the cagA gene can be recommended in countries with common cagA ⁺ strains. Although both cag genes were linked to severe diseases in Bulgarian patients, the best discrimination of virulent strains was obtained by the cagA/cagE combination or by the cagE gene alone. cagE prevalence increased gradually with patient age, while the cagA ⁺/cagE ⁻ genotype, implying a disrupted cag pathogenicity island, was associated with both younger age and female gender.     

Floral development and systematic position of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arillastrum</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Allosyncarpia</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stockwellia</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptopsis</Emphasis> (Myrtaceae)

We have investigated the floral ontogeny of Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis (of the eucalypt group, Myrtaceae) using scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy. Several critical characters for establishing relationships between these genera and to the eucalypts have been determined. The absence of compound petaline primordia in Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis excludes these taxa from the eucalypt clade. Post-anthesis circumscissile abscission of the hypanthium above the ovary in Stockwellia, Eucalyptopsis and Allosyncarpia is evidence that these three taxa form a monophyletic group; undifferentiated perianth parts and elongated fusiform buds are characters that unite Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis as sister taxa. No floral characters clearly associate Arillastrum with either the eucalypt clade or the clade of Stockwellia, Eucalyptopsis and Allosyncarpia.We gratefully acknowledge Clyde Dunlop and Bob Harwood (Northern Territory Herbarium) for collecting specimens of Allosyncarpia, and Bruce Gray (Atherton) for collecting specimens of Stockwellia. The Australian National Herbarium (CANB) kindly lent herbarium specimens of Eucalyptopsis for examination. This research was supported by a University of Melbourne Research Development Grant to Andrew Drinnan.     

Hair density in the Eurasian otter <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lutra lutra</Emphasis> and the Sea otter <Emphasis Type="Italic">Enhydra lutris</Emphasis>

The hair density of adult Eurasian otters Lutra lutra (Linnaeus, 1758) and sea otters Enhydra lutris (Linnaeus, 1758) was analysed using skin samples taken from frozen carcasses. Lutra lutra exhibited a mean hair density of about 70 000 hairs/cm² (whole body, appendages excepted), the mean individual density ranging from about 60 000 to 80 000 hairs/cm². The dominant hair type were secondary hairs (wool hairs), the hair coat comprising only 1.26% of primary hairs (PH). Secondary hair (SH) density remained constant over the body (appendages excepted), whereas a few variations in PH density were observed. Neither an influence of the sex, nor a seasonal variation of the hair coat was found, moulting seems to be continuous. Enhydra lutris had a hair density between 120 000 and 140 000 hairs/cm², the primary hairs representing less than 1% within the hair coat. Hair density remained quite constant over the regions of the trunk but was lower at the head (about 60 000 hairs/cm² on the cheek). The hair follicles were arranged in specific groups with different bundles of varying size, normally comprising dominant numbers of wool hair (SH) follicles. Invariably there was always a large central primary hair follicle and numerous sebaceous glands between the bundles and principally around the PH follicles. The results are discussed related to possible ecological influences on hair coat density.     

Prevalence of full-size <Emphasis Type="Italic">P</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">KP</Emphasis> elements in North American populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila melanogaster</Emphasis>

The P transposable element invaded the Drosophila melanogaster genome in the middle of the twentieth century, probably from D. willistoni in the Caribbean or southeastern North America. P elements then spread rapidly and became ubiquitous worldwide in wild populations of D. melanogaster by 1980. To study the dynamics and long-term fate of transposable genetic elements, we examined the molecular profile of genomic P elements and the phenotype in the P-M system of the current North American natural populations collected in 2001-2003. We found that full-size P and KP elements were the two major size classes of P elements present in the genomes of all populations ("FP + KP predominance") and that the P-related phenotypes had largely not changed since the 1980s. Both FP + KP predominance and phenotypic stability were also seen in other populations from other continents. As North American populations did not show many KP elements in earlier samples, we hypothesize that KP elements have spread and multiplied in the last 20 years in North America. We suggest that this may be due to a transpositional advantage of KP elements, rather than to a role in P-element regulation.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Quinua</Emphasis> and Relatives (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chenopodium</Emphasis> sect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chenopodium</Emphasis> subsect.<Emphasis Type="Italic">Celluloid</Emphasis>)

Traditionally viewed as an Andean grain crop,Chenopodium quinoa Willd. includes domesticated populations that are not Andean, and Andean populations that are not domesticated. Comparative analysis of leaf morphology and allozyme frequencies have demonstrated that Andean populations, both domesticated(quinua) and free-living(ajara), represent an exceptionally homogeneous unit that is well differentiated from allied domesticates of coastal Chile(quingua) and freeliving populations of the Argentine lowlands(C. hircinum). This pattern of relationships indicates that Andean populations represent a monophyletic crop/weed system that has possibly developed through cyclic differentiation (natural vs. human selection) and introgressive hybridization. Relative levels of variation suggest that this complex originated in the southern Andes, possibly from wild types allied withC. hircinum, with subsequent dispersal north to Colombia and south to the Chilean coast. Coastal populations were apparently isolated from post-dispersal differentiation and homogenization that occurred in the Andes. Other data point toward a center of origin in the northern Andes with secondary centers of genetic diversity subsequently developing in the southern Andes and the plains of Argentina. Comparative linkage of South American taxa, all tetraploid, with North American tetraploids of the subsection will eventually clarify this problem. While the possibility of a direct phyletic connection betweenC. quinoa and the Mexican domesticate(C. berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae,) cannot be excluded, available evidence indicates that the latter represents an autonomous lineage that is associated with the basal tetraploid, C. b. subsp.berlandieri, through var.sinuatum, whereas South American taxa show possible affinities to either var. zschackei or var.berlandieri. An extinct domesticate of eastern North America,C. b. subsp.jonesianum, represents either another instance of independent domestication, possibly from subsp. b. var.zschackei, or a northeastern outlier of subsp.nuttalliae.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">SnRK2</Emphasis> Homologs in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gossypium</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">GhSnRK2.6</Emphasis> Improved Salt Tolerance in Transgenic Upland Cotton and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis</Emphasis>

SnRK2s are a large family of plant-specific protein kinases, which play important roles in multiple abiotic stress responses in various plant species. But the family in Gossypium has not been well studied. Here, we identified 13, 10, and 13 members of the SnRK2 family from Gossypium raimondii, Gossypium arboreum, and Gossypium hirsutum, respectively, and analyzed the locations of SnRK2 homologs in chromosomes based on genome data of cotton species. Phylogenetic tree analysis of SnRK2 proteins showed that these families were classified into three groups. All SnRK2 genes were comprised of nine exons and eight introns, and the exon distributions and the intron phase of homolog genes among different cotton species were analogous. Moreover, GhSnRK2.6 was overexpressed in Arabidopsis and upland cotton, respectively. Under salt treatment, overexpressed Arabidopsis could maintain higher biomass accumulation than wild-type plants, and GhSnRK2.6 overexpression in cotton exhibited higher germination rate than the control. So, the gene GhSnRK2.6 could be utilized in cotton breeding for salt tolerance.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">In vitro</Emphasis> propagation of North American ginseng (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Panax quinquefolius</Emphasis> L.)

North American ginseng (NAG) (Panax quinquefolius L.) is a medicinally important plant with multiple uses in the natural health product industry. As seed propagation is time-consuming because of the slow growth cycle of the plant, in vitro propagation using a bioreactor system was evaluated as an effective approach to accelerate plant production. An efficient method was developed to multiply nodal explants of NAG using liquid-culture medium and a simple temporary immersion culture vessel. The effects of plant growth regulators, phenolics, and chemical additives (activated charcoal, melatonin, polyvinylpolypyrrolidone, and ascorbic acid) were evaluated on in vitro-grown NAG plants. The highest number (12) of shoots per single node was induced in half-strength Schenk and Hildebrandt basal medium containing 2.5 mg/l kinetin, in which 81% of the cultured nodes responded. In a culture medium with 0.5 mg/l α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), roots were induced in 78% of the explants compared to 50% with a medium containing indole-3-acetic acid. All of the resulting plants appeared phenotypically normal, and 93% of the rooted plants were established in the greenhouse. Phenolic production increased significantly (P < 0.05) over a 4-wk culture period with a negative impact on growth and proliferation. Activated charcoal (AC; 50 mg/l) significantly reduced total phenolic content and was the most effective treatment for increasing shoot proliferation. Shoot production increased as the phenolic content of the cultures decreased. The most effective treatment for NAG development from cultured nodal explants in the bioreactor was 2.5 mg/l kinetin, 0.5 mg/l NAA, and 50 mg/l AC in liquid culture medium. This protocol may be useful in providing NAG tissues or plants for a range of ginseng-based natural health products.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">In silico</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">in situ</Emphasis> characterization of the zebrafish (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Danio rerio</Emphasis>) <Emphasis Type="Italic">gnrh3</Emphasis> (sGnRH) gene

Background

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) is responsible for stimulation of gonadotropic hormone (GtH) in the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG). The regulatory mechanisms responsible for brain specificity make the promoter attractive for in silico analysis and reporter gene studies in zebrafish (Danio rerio).

Results

We have characterized a zebrafish [Trp⁷, Leu⁸] or salmon (s) GnRH variant, gnrh 3. The gene includes a 1.6 Kb upstream regulatory region and displays the conserved structure of 4 exons and 3 introns, as seen in other species. An in silico defined enhancer at -976 in the zebrafish promoter, containing adjacent binding sites for Oct-1, CREB and Sp1, was predicted in 2 mammalian and 5 teleost GnRH promoters. Reporter gene studies confirmed the importance of this enhancer for cell specific expression in zebrafish. Interestingly the promoter of human GnRH-I, known as mammalian GnRH (mGnRH), was shown capable of driving cell specific reporter gene expression in transgenic zebrafish.

Conclusions

The characterized zebrafish Gnrh3 decapeptide exhibits complete homology to the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) GnRH-III variant. In silico analysis of mammalian and teleost GnRH promoters revealed a conserved enhancer possessing binding sites for Oct-1, CREB and Sp1. Transgenic and transient reporter gene expression in zebrafish larvae, confirmed the importance of the in silico defined zebrafish enhancer at -976. The capability of the human GnRH-I promoter of directing cell specific reporter gene expression in zebrafish supports orthology between GnRH-I and GnRH-III.

     

Revision of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis> species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penstemon</Emphasis> section <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccanthera</Emphasis> subsection <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis>

A revision of Penstemon sect. Saccanthera subsect. Serrulati includes a new species (P. salmonensis), a new variety (P. triphyllus var. infernalis), and the elevation of a subspecies to species (P. curtiflorus), bringing the total number of species to eight, which are keyed and described, complete with nomenclature and type citations.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Galleria</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mellonella</Emphasis> are Resistant to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pneumocystis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">murina</Emphasis> Infection

Studying Pneumocystis has proven to be a challenge from the perspective of propagating a significant amount of the pathogen in a facile manner. The study of several fungal pathogens has been aided by the use of invertebrate model hosts. Our efforts to infect the invertebrate larvae Galleria mellonella with Pneumocystis proved futile since P. murina neither caused disease nor was able to proliferate within G. mellonella. It did, however, show that the pathogen could be rapidly cleared from the host.     

Pedogamy in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Neidium</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillariophyceae</Emphasis>)

Single (unpaired) vegetative cells of freshwater pennate diatom Neidium cf. ampliatum differentiated into gametangia and produced a single zygote (auxospore) via a pedogamic process. The gametic nuclei fused after auxospore expansion had begun. The auxospore expanded in parallel to the apical axis of the gametangium.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">tumefaciens</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of callus cells of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crataegus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">aronia</Emphasis>

A genetic transformation system has been developed for callus cells of Crataegus aronia using Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Callus culture was established from internodal stem segments incubated on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 5 mg l⁻¹ Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and 0.5 mg l⁻¹ 6-benzyladenine (BA). In order to optimize the callus culture system with respect to callus growth and coloration, different types and concentrations of plant growth regulators were tested. Results indicated that the best average fresh weight of red colored callus was obtained on MS medium supplemented with 2 mg l⁻¹ 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 1.5 mg l⁻¹ kinetin (Kin) (callus maintenance medium). Callus cells were co-cultivated with Agrobacterium harboring the binary plasmid pCAMBIA1302 carrying the mgfp5 and hygromycin phosphotransferase (hptII) genes conferring green fluorescent protein (GFP) activity and hygromycin resistance, respectively. Putative transgenic calli were obtained 4 weeks after incubation of the co-cultivated explants onto maintenance medium supplemented with 50 mg l⁻¹ hygromycin. Molecular analysis confirmed the integration of the transgenes in transformed callus. To our knowledge, this is the first time to report an Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system in Crataegus aronia.     

Isolation and characterization of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix gmelinii </Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">ANGUSTIFOLIA</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">LgAN</Emphasis>) gene

ANGUSTIFOLIA (AN), a plant homolog of C-terminal binding protein, controls the polar elongation of leaf cells and the trichome-branching pattern in Arabidopsis thaliana. In the present study, degenerate PCR was used to isolate an ortholog of AN, referred to as LgAN, from larch (Larix gmelinii). The LgAN cDNA is predicted to encode a protein of 646 amino acids that shows striking sequence similarity to AN proteins from other plants. The predicted amino acid sequence has a conserved NAD-dependent 2-hydroxy acid dehydrogenase (D2-HDH) motif and a plant AN-specific LxCxE/D motif at its N-terminus, as well as a plant-specific long C-terminal region. The LgAN gene is a single-copy gene that is expressed in all larch tissues. Expression of the LgAN cDNA rescued the leaf width and trichome-branching pattern defects in the angustifolia-1 (an-1) mutant of Arabidopsis, showing that the LgAN gene has effects complementary to those of AN. These results suggest that the LgAN gene has the same function as the AN gene.     

Resistance to herbivory of two populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Elodea</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">canadensis</Emphasis> Michaux and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Elodea nuttallii</Emphasis> Planchon St. John

In this article, we compared the resistance of two introduced populations of Elodea nuttallii and Elodea canadensis to two different herbivores. Samples were collected from the River Rhine and River Rhône in eastern France. The two populations of E. nuttallii differed in their introduction history, whereas E. canadensis was introduced at the same time in the two sites. The Daily Food Consumption (DFC) rates of the two macrophyte populations were evaluated in no-choice experiments using the scraper Lymnaea stagnalis and the shredder Gammarus roeseli. At the same time, we assessed four plant traits: dry matter content (DMC), total nitrogen content, carbon/nitrogen ratio and total phenolic content. The two populations of E. canadensis were consumed at low levels by both the herbivores. L. stagnalis showed a higher DFC on the Rhône population of E. nuttallii than on the Rhine population. No significant difference between the two populations was established with G. roeseli, but the level of DFC was high. This result demonstrates that the assessment of plant palatability should be carried out with several generalist herbivores belonging to various feeding groups (e.g. scrapers or shredders). Although the Rhône population of E. nuttallii had higher levels of phenols than the other populations, it was consistently consumed in greater quantities than E. canadensis. Neither the phenolic contents were not effective against these herbivores, nor the levels of phenolics too low to induce an efficient resistance. The higher DMC and the lower DFC of the two populations of E. canadensis suggest that this introduced plant has co-evolved with indigenous enemies in the introduced range.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">Caenorhabditis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">briggsae</Emphasis> genome contains active <Emphasis Type="Italic">CbmaT1</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tcb1</Emphasis> transposons

The maT clade of transposons is a group of transposable elements intermediate in sequence and predicted protein structure to mariner and Tc transposons, with a distribution thus far limited to a few invertebrate species. We present evidence, based on searches of publicly available databases, that the nematode Caenorhabditis briggsae has several maT-like transposons, which we have designated as CbmaT elements, dispersed throughout its genome. We also describe two additional transposon sequences that probably share their evolutionary history with the CbmaT transposons. One resembles a fold back variant of a CbmaT element, with long (380-bp) inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) that show a high degree (71%) of identity to CbmaT1. The other, which shares only the 26-bp ITR sequences with one of the CbmaT variants, is present in eight nearly identical copies, but does not have a transposase gene and may therefore be cross mobilised by a CbmaT transposase. Using PCR-based mobility assays, we show that CbmaT1 transposons are capable of excising from the C. briggsae genome. CbmaT1 excised approximately 500 times less frequently than Tcb1 in the reference strain AF16, but both CbmaT1 and Tcb1 excised at extremely high frequencies in the HK105 strain. The HK105 strain also exhibited a high frequency of spontaneous induction of unc-22 mutants, suggesting that it may be a mutator strain of C. briggsae.