Dynamic bone remodeling in later Pleistocene fossil hominids

Histomorphometric analysis of femoral and tibial diaphyseal fragments from seven Late Archaic and three Early Modern humans are compared with those of the Pecos, a pre-Columbian Native American population. The ten samples, from Broken Hill (EM-793), Shanidar 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, Tabun 1, and Skhul 3, 6, and 7, provide age-at-death results consistent with earlier estimates for most individuals. The Pleistocene groups exhibit less bone turnover and smaller osteons than Recent populations. Resorption and formation were both coupled and balanced in these Pleistocene populations, but the overall vigor of individual cells from both the osteoclast and osteoblast cell lines was less than in Recent populations. Thus the greater bone mass in Later Pleistocene members of the genus Homo is not the result of higher levels of bone turnover, at least among adults. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

A bivariate approach to the widening of the frontal lobes in the genus Homo

Within the genus Homo, the most encephalized taxa (Neandertals and modern humans) show relatively wider frontal lobes than either Homo erectus or australopithecines. The present analysis considers whether these changes are associated with a single size-based or allometric pattern (positive allometry of the width of the anterior endocranial fossa) or with a more specific and non-allometric pattern. The relationship between hemispheric length, maximum endocranial width, and frontal width at Broca's area was investigated in extant and extinct humans. Our results do not support positive allometry for the frontal lobe's width in relation to the main endocranial diameters within modern humans (Homo sapiens). Also, the correlation between frontal width and hemispheric length is lower than the correlation between frontal width and parieto-temporal width. When compared with the australopithecines, the genus Homo could have experienced a non-allometric widening of the brain at the temporo-parietal areas, which is most evident in Neandertals. Modern humans and Neandertals also display a non-allometric widening of the anterior endocranial fossa at the Broca's cap when compared with early hominids, again more prominent in the latter group. Taking into account the contrast between the intra-specific patterns and the between-species differences, the relative widening of the anterior fossa can be interpreted as a definite evolutionary character instead of a passive consequence of brain size increase. This expansion is most likely associated with correspondent increments of the underlying neural mass, or at least with a geometrical reallocation of the frontal cortical volumes. Although different structural changes of the cranial architecture can be related to such variations, the widening of the frontal areas is nonetheless particularly interesting when some neural functions (like language or working memory, decision processing, etc.) and related fronto-parietal cortico-cortical connections are taken into account.     

Improved age control on early Homo fossils from the upper Burgi Member at Koobi Fora,Kenya

To address questions regarding the evolutionary origin, radiation and dispersal of the genus Homo, it is crucial to be able to place the occurrence of hominin fossils in a high-resolution chronological framework. The period around 2 Ma (millions of years ago) in eastern Africa is of particular interest as it is at this time that a more substantial fossil record of the genus Homo is first found. Here we combine magnetostratigraphy and strontium (Sr) isotope stratigraphy to improve age control on hominin-bearing upper Burgi (UBU) deposits in Areas 105 and 131 on the Karari Ridge in the eastern Turkana Basin (Kenya). We identify the base of the Olduvai subchron (bC2n) plus a short isolated interval of consistently normal polarity that we interpret to be the Pre-Olduvai event. Combined with precession-forced (∼20 kyr [thousands of years]) wet–dry climate cycles resolved by Sr isotope ratios, the magnetostratigraphic data allow us to construct an age model for the UBU deposits. We provide detailed age constraints for 15 hominin fossils from Area 131, showing that key specimens such as cranium KNM-ER 1470, partial face KNM-ER 62000 and mandibles KNM-ER 1482, KNM-ER 1801, and KNM-ER 1802 can be constrained between 1.945 ± 0.004 and 2.058 ± 0.034 Ma, and thus older than previously estimated. The new ages are consistent with a temporal overlap of two species of early Homo that can be distinguished by their facial morphology. Further, our results show that in this time interval, hominins occurred throughout the wet–dry climate cycles, supporting the hypothesis that the lacustrine Turkana Basin was a refugium during regionally dry periods. By establishing the observed first appearance datum of a marine-derived stingray in UBU deposits at 2.058 ± 0.034 Ma, we show that at this time the Turkana Basin was hydrographically connected to the Indian Ocean, facilitating dispersal of fauna between these areas. From a biogeographical perspective, we propose that the Indian Ocean coastal strip should be considered as a possible source area for one or more of the multiple Homo species in the Turkana Basin from over 2 Ma onwards.     

Mandibular molar root morphology in Neanderthals and Late Pleistocene and recent Homo sapiens

Neanderthals have a distinctive suite of dental features, including large anterior crown and root dimensions and molars with enlarged pulp cavities. Yet, there is little known about variation in molar root morphology in Neanderthals and other recent and fossil members of Homo. Here, we provide the first comprehensive metric analysis of permanent mandibular molar root morphology in Middle and Late Pleistocene Homo neanderthalensis, and Late Pleistocene (Aterian) and recent Homo sapiens. We specifically address the question of whether root form can be used to distinguish between these groups and assess whether any variation in root form can be related to differences in tooth function. We apply a microtomographic imaging approach to visualise and quantify the external and internal dental morphologies of both isolated molars and molars embedded in the mandible (n = 127). Univariate and multivariate analyses reveal both similarities (root length and pulp volume) and differences (occurrence of pyramidal roots and dental tissue volume proportion) in molar root morphology among penecontemporaneous Neanderthals and Aterian H. sapiens. In contrast, the molars of recent H. sapiens are markedly smaller than both Pleistocene H. sapiens and Neanderthals, but share with the former the dentine volume reduction and a smaller root-to-crown volume compared with Neanderthals. Furthermore, we found the first molar to have the largest average root surface area in recent H. sapiens and Neanderthals, although in the latter the difference between M₁ and M₂ is small. In contrast, Aterian H. sapiens root surface areas peak at M₂. Since root surface area is linked to masticatory function, this suggests a distinct occlusal loading regime in Neanderthals compared with both recent and Pleistocene H. sapiens.     

Early Pleistocene Dicerorhinus sumatrensis remains from the Liucheng Gigantopithecus Cave, Guangxi, China

The Liucheng Gigantopithecus Cave is very famous for its rich mammalian fauna and Gigantopithecus fossils. The Gigantopithecus Cave Fauna has been regarded as the typical Early Pleistocene fauna in South China. The majority of the fossils unearthed has been studied and published during the past decades. The only group remaining unpublished is the rhinoceros, which is studied in this paper. The rhino materials available today are only mandibles and lower cheek teeth. The dimensions of the tooth rows and the isolated teeth fall well within the range of the recent Dicerorhinus sumatrensis. Therefore, the rhino fossils from the Liucheng Gigantopithecus Cave can be referred to this living species. The reduced lower incisors and the U-shaped lingual contour of the mandible also support this taxonomic determination. The rhino materials from the Liucheng Gigantopithecus Cave represent the earliest known record of this species and the smallest Pleistocene rhinocerotid in China.     

A comment on relative molar breadth in Ramapithecus

The evidence for broad molars in Ramapithecus is reviewed in this study. Extensive comparisons are made with living and fossil pongids and the earliest undoubted hominids, the australopithecines. These comparisons suggest that Ramapithecus is like its closely related Indian relatives, D. indicus and D. sivalensis. Trends in molar shape are discussed as well as some problems in the interpretation of the adaptive meaning of relative molar breadth in hominoids.     

Dental size variation in the Atapuerca-SH Middle Pleistocene hominids

The Middle Pleistocene Atapuerca-Sima de los Huesos (SH) site in Spain has yielded the largest sample of fossil hominids so far found from a single site and belonging to the same biological population. The SH dental sample includes a total of 452 permanent and deciduous teeth, representing a minimum of 27 individuals. We present a study of the dental size variation in these hominids, based on the analysis of the mandibular permanent dentition: lateral incisors, n=29; canines, n=27; third premolars, n=30; fourth premolars, n=34; first molars, n=38; second molars, n=38. We have obtained the buccolingual diameter and the crown area (measured on occlusal photographs) of these teeth, and used the bootstrap method to assess the amount of variation in the SH sample compared with the variation of a modern human sample from the Museu Antropologico of the Universidade of Coimbra (Portugal). The SH hominids have, in general terms, a dental size variation higher than that of the modern human sample. The analysis is especially conclusive for the canines. Furthermore, we have estimated the degree of sexual dimorphism of the SH sample by obtaining male and female dental subsamples by means of sexing the large sample of SH mandibular specimens. We obtained the index of sexual dimorphism (ISD=male mean/female mean) and the values were compared with those obtained from the sexed modern human sample from Coimbra, and with data found in the literature concerning several recent human populations. In all tooth classes the ISD of the SH hominids was higher than that of modern humans, but the differences were generally modest, except for the canines, thus suggesting that canine size sexual dimorphism in Homo heidelbergensis was probably greater than that of modern humans. Since the approach of sexing fossil specimens has some obvious limitations, these results should be assessed with caution. Additional data from SH and other European Middle Pleistocene sites would be necessary to test this hypothesis.     

A review of early Homo in southern Africa focusing on cranial, mandibular and dental remains, with the description of a new species (Homo gautengensis sp. nov.)

The southern African sample of early Homo is playing an increasingly important role in understanding the origins, diversity and adaptations of the human genus. Yet, the affinities and classification of these remains continue to be in a state of flux. The southern African sample derives from five karstic palaeocave localities and represents more than one-third of the total African sample for this group; sampling an even wider range of anatomical regions than the eastern African collection. Morphological and phenetic comparisons of southern African specimens covering dental, mandibular and cranial remains demonstrate this sample to contain a species distinct from known early Homo taxa. The new species Homo gautengensis sp. nov. is described herein: type specimen Stw 53; Paratypes SE 255, SE 1508, Stw 19b/33, Stw 75-79, Stw 80, Stw 84, Stw 151, SK 15, SK 27, SK 45, SK 847, SKX 257/258, SKX 267/268, SKX 339, SKX 610, SKW 3114 and DNH 70. H. gautengensis is identified from fossils recovered at three palaeocave localities with current best ages spanning ∼2.0 to 1.26-0.82 million years BP. Thus, H. gautengensis is probably the earliest recognised species in the human genus and its longevity is apparently well in excess of H. habilis.     

Genome size and DNA complexity of Plasmodium falciparum

Plasmodium falciparum DNA was prepared from cells cultured in vitro in human erythrocytes. The P. falciparum DNA was mixed with a tritium-labeled Escherichia coli DNA standard, and the kinetics of reassociation were measured using hydroxyapatite chromatography. It was found that the P. falciparum genome size is equal to 3.8·10⁸ nucleotide pairs, and that a repetitive component is present which contains about 10% of the DNA. The average repetition frequency in this component is 95 copies of each sequence.     

Absolute and relative quantification of RNA modifications via biosynthetic isotopomers

In the resurging field of RNA modifications, quantification is a bottleneck blocking many exciting avenues. With currently over 150 known nucleoside alterations, detection and quantification methods must encompass multiple modifications for a comprehensive profile. LC–MS/MS approaches offer a perspective for comprehensive parallel quantification of all the various modifications found in total RNA of a given organism. By feeding ¹³C-glucose as sole carbon source, we have generated a stable isotope-labeled internal standard (SIL-IS) for bacterial RNA, which facilitates relative comparison of all modifications. While conventional SIL-IS approaches require the chemical synthesis of single modifications in weighable quantities, this SIL-IS consists of a nucleoside mixture covering all detectable RNA modifications of Escherichia coli, yet in small and initially unknown quantities. For absolute in addition to relative quantification, those quantities were determined by a combination of external calibration and sample spiking of the biosynthetic SIL-IS. For each nucleoside, we thus obtained a very robust relative response factor, which permits direct conversion of the MS signal to absolute amounts of substance. The application of the validated SIL-IS allowed highly precise quantification with standard deviations <2% during a 12-week period, and a linear dynamic range that was extended by two orders of magnitude.     

Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia

Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia. Takeru Akazawa. Kenichi Aoki. and Ofer Bar-Yosef. eds. New York: Plenum Press, 1998.539 pp.     

Clutch size relative to tree cavity size in Northern Flickers

We analysed clutch size versus nest size in 153 broods of the Northern Flicker Colaptes auratus , a woodpecker using natural cavities in British Columbia, Canada. Larger volume cavities were less susceptible to predation and cavity size was positively associated with the age and body size of males and with the body condition of female parents. Although clutches varied between 4 and 11 eggs, and the floor area of cavities varied about 5-fold, we found no relationship between clutch size and floor area or cavity volume. To see if there were fitness consequences to clutch size relative to nest size, we examined hatching success and nestling mortality in flicker broods. Hatching success was not related to cavity size, but crowding slightly reduced nestling survival even when clutch size was controlled statistically. However, there was no effect of cavity size on the total number of nestlings fledged. Newly excavated flicker cavities were smaller than reused cavities suggesting a cost to excavation. This cost, coupled with the minimal fitness consequences of overcrowding, may explain why flickers do not adjust clutch size to cavity size.     

Absolute and relative QPCR quantification of plasmid copy number in Escherichia coli

Real-time QPCR based methods for determination of plasmid copy number in recombinant Escherichia coli cultures are presented. Two compatible methods based on absolute and relative analyses were tested with recombinant E. coli DH5alpha harboring pBR322, which is a common bacterial cloning vector. The separate detection of the plasmid and the host chromosomal DNA was achieved using two separate primer sets, specific for the plasmid beta-lactamase gene (bla) and for the chromosomal d-1-deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate synthase gene (dxs), respectively. Since both bla and dxs are single-copy genes of pBR322 and E. coli chromosomal DNA, respectively, the plasmid copy number can be determined as the copy ratio of bla to dxs. These methods were successfully applied to determine the plasmid copy number of pBR322 of E. coli host cells. The results of the absolute and relative analyses were identical and highly reproducible with coefficient of variation (CV) values of 2.8-3.9% and 4.7-5.4%, respectively. The results corresponded to the previously reported values of pBR322 copy number within E. coli host cells, 15-20. The methods introduced in this study are convenient to perform and cost-effective compared to the traditionally used Southern blot method. The primer sets designed in this study can be used to determine plasmid copy number of any recombinant E. coli with a plasmid vector having bla gene.