Orchard agriculture in the high mountain region of Southern Sinai

Bedouin of the Middle East have been considered to subsist exclusively as nomadic herders. A regional approach to the subsistence economy of Bedouin considers their articulation with agricultural systems. The economy of Jebaliyah Bedouin of the southern Sinai is unusual in that they directly practice both herding and orchard agriculture. A survey of historical records and contemporary data explicates the thesis that Jebaliyah Bedouin were not and are not an isolated and economically autonomous group.     

Opportunism and Diversification: Entrepreneurship and Livelihood Strategies in Uncertain Times

As economic crisis deepens across Europe people are forced to find innovative strategies to accommodate circumstances of chronic uncertainty. Even with a second multi-billion euro bailout package secured for Greece, the prospects of a sustainable recovery in the near future look bleak. However, crisis has also created dynamic spaces for entrepreneurial opportunism and diversification resulting in social mobility, relocation, shifts in livelihood strategy and a burgeoning informal economy. Although economic systems are currently undergoing radical reassessment, social demands such as competitive consumption remain. Opportunities for investment in renewable energy programmes, especially photovoltaics, are also pervasive. By considering cases of business opportunism and livelihood diversification in relation to Max Weber's concept of wertrational and notions of uncertainty, this article brings new perspectives to strategies of negotiating the worst economic crisis in living memory.     

Evaluating the role of livelihood assets in suitable livelihood strategies: Protocol for anti-poverty policy in the Eastern Tibetan Plateau,China

Although numerous studies have been conducted on the relationship between livelihood assets and strategies, only a few quantitative studies exist on the topic for anti-poverty policies with regard to the Tibetan Plateau. This study investigated 357 households in the upper reaches of the Dadu River watershed in the Eastern Tibetan Plateau, China, using the participatory rural appraisal method. Then, applying a multinomial logistic regression model, we quantitatively analyzed the relationship between livelihood assets and livelihood strategies, the findings of which have implications for local agricultural policy interventions. The preliminary results indicate that of the four classifications of livelihood strategies used in this study, the main livelihood strategy is that of the non-farming-dependent household type (i.e., Type III in our study) that combines agricultural and non-farm activities or practices self-employment for wages. There are significant differences in the livelihood assets owned by households with different livelihood strategies. Human, natural, and financial assets have significant influences on livelihood strategies, and the choice of livelihood strategy varies by livelihood assets. Further, with improvements in household labor capacity and cash income per capita, the livelihood strategies of non-agricultural and non-farming households may shift away from agriculture, while an increase in farmland cultivated per capita, cash income per capita, and household labor capacity may encourage households to adopt agriculture-dependent livelihood strategies. These findings contribute to research on livelihood and related development strategies and anti-poverty policies in not only the Eastern Tibetan Plateau but also other regions with similar livelihood strategies.     

From zomo to yak: Change in a Sherpa village

Transhumant herding of cow-yak hybrids is a specialization of Helambu Sherpa villagers living at altitudes between 7,000– 11,000 feet on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Hybrids are ideally suited for the climate at this altitude, producing large quantities of rich milk for butter production. Focused on a village in east- central Nepal, this paper documents a shift by some families between 1971– 1989 from the longstanding pattern of herding hybrids to an alternative pattern of producing them. This involves learning to manage yak, establishing new transhumance routes, a switch from dairying to livestock production, and a variety of economic, environmental, and social repercussions. The two types of herding systems are described, and possible causes for the shift are discussed within the context of the economic options available to people in this environment. A special emphasis is placed on the flexibility of options that is both necessary and possible with transhumant agropastoralism as practiced by middle and high-altitude Himalayan peoples.     

Livestock Diversification: an Adaptive Strategy to Climate and Rangeland Ecosystem Changes in Southern Ethiopia

Pastoral cattle production in southern Ethiopia is becoming increasingly vulnerable to impacts of climate variability and rangeland resource degradation, giving rise to livestock diversification. Using a household (n?=?242) survey among herders, the relative functions, adaptability and vulnerability of four livestock species and factors influencing livestock diversification were analyzed. The stated major drivers of livestock diversification were recurrent droughts, bush encroachment, increased vulnerability of cattle and growing demand for adaptive species. Different livestock species are kept to fulfill various livelihood priorities with subsistence objectives outweighing production goals of the herders. Adaptability and vulnerability analyses of the livestock species showed camels and cattle to be the most and least adaptable species, respectively. Livestock species diversification varied significantly with family size and per capita holding of cattle, implicating the influence of labor and economic factors on adoptions. Multispecies herding emerged as the dominant local adaptation strategy, likely because it enhances resilience of households to climate and rangeland ecosystem changes by broadening the set of existing strategies.     

Cultivation of Gracilaria on the sea-bottom in southern Chile: a review

This review contains information about the cultivation techniques, strategies, problems and new challenges faced as well as an economic analysis of the income-producing capacity of Gracilaria farming, considering the variability of environmental systems where this alga is cultivated in southern Chile. The development of Gracilaria farming in Chile was made possible by an increased market demand, as well as the existence of basic knowledge that permitted the management of wild stocks and the initiation of cultivation practices. Subtidal cultivation systems appear to be more productive than intertidal systems and are less susceptible to wave action than intertidal cultivation areas. In relation to farming practices, this difference implies that planting and harvesting methods and strategies vary between habitats where cultivation is being carried out on a commercial scale. Several problems such as the environmental impact of different cultivation methods adopted by the farmers, the management of contaminating organisms and strain selection appear to be important and new areas for future research. Finally, an analysis of the income-producing capacity indicates that environmental differences also have important consequences for the management strategies of Gracilaria cultivation.     

Differences in the structure of the rete ophthalmicum among three breeds of domestic fowls,Gallus gallus f. domesticus (Aves)

Summary The morphology of the rete ophthalmicum, which functions as a brain cooling system, was studied in the desert-origin Bedouin fowl in comparison with two commercial breeds: the White Leghorn and the White Plymouth Rock.Cross-sections of the rete ophthalmicum revealed a significantly higher degree of arteriovenous contact in the Bedouin fowl than in the commercial breeds (P<0.01). Based on the allometric relationship between the heat exchange area in the rete and body weight, the Bedouin fowl has a significantly higher heat exchange area than non-Bedouin fowls of similar body weights (P<0.02).These findings suggest that the higher heat exchange area and the high degree of arteriovenous contact in the rete ophthalmicum of the Bedouin fowl is an adaptation to desert conditions, and contributes functionally to the apparently superior heat resistance in this desert breed.     

Herd composition in an Aymara community of the Peruvian Altiplano: A linear programming problem

A model of herd management is presented for Aymara alpaca herders in the south central Andes. Linear programming methods and subjective utility values are used to model how pastoralists choose the size of their herd and the species they raise. These decisions are modeled in light of the land and labor resources available to pastoralists, and the products Andean herders must derive from their herds (meat, wool, and dung). The model predicts typical herd size in the community of Chinchillape, and has implications for social and economic changes seen in the Andes today. Specifically, pastoralists in Chinchillape are pursuing maximizing strategies, optimizing herd value by concentrating on alpacas, and decreasing the proportion of llamas in their herd in response to expanding transportation systems. Finally, results of the models indicate that sheep are a very poor option for Andean herders. This explains the reluctance of indigenous herders to adopt sheep herding in some areas of the Andes.     

Herding Strategies of the Datoga Pastoralists of Tanzania: Is Household Labor a Limiting Factor

Datoga herding follows a cyclical pattern depending on the availability of grazing and water. This analysis focuses on two questions: (a) Is the herding strategy followed by individual households limited by the amount of labor available to that household? and (b) does the herding strategy followed by individual households influence the dynamics of cattle herds? The results show that the availability of labor on a household level does not influence either the herding strategies used by individual households, or the dynamics of cattle herds. This suggests that once minimum labor requirements are met, livestock productivity is insensitive to additional labor inputs.     

山地-绿洲“共轭型”生态牧场理念源起、概念框架与发展模式——以祁连山牧区为例

区域协调发展空间布局及耦合效应是国土空间治理现代化、区域生态保护和高质量发展绕不开的重要命题。本研究利用146户牧户访谈和21次管理部门调研资料,结合卫星遥感数据和文献资料,从“三生”(生产、生活、生态)视角爬梳祁连山草地畜牧业、河西走廊饲草种植业、牧户生计路径策略的历史源起和发展历程。在生态系统服务流理论指导下深入刻画了祁连山与河西走廊农牧耦合系统的空间联系,诠释了祁连山-河西走廊“共轭型”生态牧场概念框架与发展模式。研究认为：(1)2011年“草原生态奖补政策”实施以来祁连山地区植被覆盖度增加显著(P<0.05);传统牧业户、生态移民户的生计多样化指数分别是2.22和2.69,生计能力脆弱;外购草料、舍饲养殖、人工种草、异地借牧(秸秆补饲)、流转草原等是牧户落实草畜动态平衡的基础性生计策略,实现了祁连山草地畜牧业由超载过牧到“超载不过牧”的跨越式转型;(2)祁连山山地系统将生态系统服务(淡水资源供给)外溢至河西走廊绿洲系统以支撑饲草种植业发展,河西走廊饲草种植业提供优质饲草“反哺”祁连山草地畜牧业发展,二者构成了山地-绿洲“共轭空间”;借助外界物质能量输入路径的“虚拟草场”模...     

Pastoralism in Northern Peru during Pre-Hispanic Times: Insights from the Mochica Period (100–800 AD) Based on Stable Isotopic Analysis of Domestic Camelids

Llama (Lama glama) and alpaca (Vicugna pacos) are the only large domesticated animals indigenous to the Americas. Pastoralism occupies a fundamental economic, social and religious role in Andean life. Today, camelid livestock are confined to the ecozone of the puna (above 3,500 masl), while their presence on the Pacific coast during pre-Hispanic times is attested by archaeological skeletal remains. This study aims to document herding practices on the northern Peruvian coast during the Early Intermediate Period (200 BC-600 AD) by gaining insights into diet, location of breeding and mobility of archaeological camelids from the funerary and ritual contexts of two Mochica sites, Uhle Platform in Huacas de Moche and El Brujo. The three first early years and the long-term life histories of the animals were documented by the combined bulk analysis of bone collagen (δ¹³C_col and δ¹⁵N_col) and bone structural carbonate (δ¹³C_bone and δ¹⁸O_bone) and the serial analysis of structural carbonate of molar tooth enamel (δ¹³C_enamel and δ¹⁸O_enamel). Mochica camelids were bred in the low and/or middle valleys, unlike their modern counterparts, who are restricted to highland puna C₃ pastures. Archaeological camelids had diverse and complex life histories, usually with substantial maize foddering. An ontogenetic switch in diet and possible residential mobility during the course of life were identified for some specimens. Although the inference of geographic origin from δ¹⁸O_bone and δ¹⁸O_enamel values was limited because of the lack of understanding of the influence of environmental and biological factors, tooth enamel analysis has great potential for exploring camelid herding practices and Andean pastoralism. Our study suggested that Mochica herders adapted their practices to the difficult lowland environment and that herding practices were varied and not restricted to breeding at higher altitudes. The role of maize in different aspects of the economic life of the Mochicas is also underlined.     

禁牧政策下宁夏盐池县农户适应策略及其影响因素

禁牧政策下农户的适应策略是农户为了应对外界干预而做出的各种适应性改变,生计变化是其中最重要的部分。通过实地调查获得研究数据,对比分析禁牧初期和禁牧10a农户生计模式、养殖及种植方面的变化,并以农户的生计资本作为自变量,运用有序多分类和二项的Logistic回归模型分析农户适应策略(农户生计多样性、养殖规模及养殖方式)变化的影响因素。研究得出:1与禁牧初期相比,当前农户的适应策略主要表现为农户生计模式具有初步非农化倾向,生计多样性增加,大部分农户养殖规模减小或不变,农户生产结构有所调整,粮食作物种植面积增加,而经济作物种植面积减小,单只羊的养殖成本增加。2农户生计资本水平对其适应策略具有重要影响,农户生计多样性变化的主要影响因素有人力资本、金融资本和社会资本;影响农户养殖规模变化的主要有自然资本、物质资本、金融资本和社会资本,而影响农户养殖模式选择的主要是物质资本和金融资本因素。     

The potential of certification for conservation and management of wild MAP resources

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are an integral part of our biodiversity. In majority of MAP rich countries, wild collection practices are the livelihood options for a large number of rural peoples and MAPs play a significant role in socio-economic development of their communities. Recent concern over the alarming situation of the status of wild MAP resources, raw material quality, as well as social exploitation of rural communities, leads to the idea of certification for MAP resource conservation and management. On one hand, while MAP certification addresses environmental, social and economic perspectives of MAP resources, on the other hand, it ensures multi-stakeholder participation in improvement of the MAP sector. This paper presents an overview of MAP certification encompassing its different parameters, current scenario (Indian background), implementation strategies as well as stakeholders’ role in MAP conservation. It also highlights Indian initiatives in this direction.     

陕北黄土高原贫困农户生计策略对生计资本的敏感性——以佳县为例

陕北黄土高原自然环境严峻,是我国农村生活最贫困的地区之一,不同地理地貌村庄的贫困农户生计策略对生计资本的敏感性还缺乏相关的实证检验。基于佳县的调研数据,将样本划分为风沙区、丘陵沟壑区和土石山区三类村庄,在贫困户和非贫困户生计资本与生计策略对比分析基础上,结合二元logistic模型对贫困农户生计策略由纯农型向非农型转变的关键因素进行分析,研究发现：人力资本、金融资本和社会资本的增加对贫困农户非农型生计策略的选择有正向作用,而自然资本、物质资本的增加对非农型生计策略的选择有负向作用。风沙区和丘陵沟壑区的结果与总样本相似,土石山区贫困农户自然资本越丰富反而越倾向于选择非农型生计策略。不同类型村庄生计策略存在显著差异,不调整生计策略的贫困农户未来仍有70％选择扩大农业、林业生产。在进行可持续生计策略调整时,个体经营和外地打工是他们主要选择的方式,自然灾害和红枣市场不景气是他们未来愿意选择生计多元化的主因。     

牧民对草地可持续利用的生态认知水平及其影响因素——以黄河源区5个县为例

牧民对草地可持续利用认知水平很大程度上影响了当地土地的利用状况,进而影响牧民保护草地行为的产生。基于黄河源区（玛多、玛沁、班玛、达日、甘德）的入户调查数据,在分析牧民生计方式和草地退化认知特征的基础上,运用Tobit模型探究影响牧民对草地退化生态认知的主要因素。研究结果表明：（1）黄河源区88%的牧民认为近5年草地出现了不同程度的退化,与学术界普遍认同的观点相一致;（2）联户放牧、子女受教育程度、新技术培训、牲畜养殖规模等对牧民关于草地退化的认知有正向引导作用;（3）户年均收入、国家草原奖补对牧民关于草地退化的认知有负向作用。为有效解决黄河源区牧民对草地的严重依赖性和源区内产业结构单一的问题,应（1）加强牧民专业技能培训、提升草原牧民整体文化水平;（2）鼓励中小牧民参与联户经营;（3）优化牧户生计方式,改善生计策略,减小牧民对草地的依赖程度,实现社会-生态系统的可持续发展。     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">In vitro</Emphasis> and cryogenic preservation of plant biodiversity in Brazil

The Brazilian biomes (Amazon, Atlantic Forest, Cerrado, Caatinga, Pantanal, and Pampa) comprise one of the highest levels of plant diversity in the world; however, non-sustainable practices, deforestation, and land use have resulted in significant losses and fragmentation of the native forests. These ecosystems are now threatened and protection of their native plants through ex situ conservation is an urgent necessity. Cryopreservation and in vitro conservation are complementary options for securing and protecting Brazil’s native plant species because their potential economic value is critically important to develop strategies that will (1) support their sustainable utilization, (2) protect against the over-exploitation of species growing in natural habitats, and (3) conserve the genetic diversity of germplasm from species of different provenances. Biotechnological approaches will help to address future economic and environmental demands placed upon already at-risk species. Conserving seed germplasm ex situ provides an additional safeguard against the risks (e.g., loss due to disease, climate change) of field conservation. Moreover, seed banks and cryobanks permit the long-term conservation of a wider genetic base; this offsets the labor and space intensive costs of conserving in the active growing state. This paper is a compilation of the current status of strategies applied for conserving Brazilian native plant species.     

Market Incorporation, Agricultural Change, and Sustainability Among the Machiguenga Indians of the Peruvian Amazon

By marshaling empirical data from five Machiguenga communities studied over 20 years, this paper disputes two common assumptions about the behavior of indigenous peoples in the face of increasing commercialization. First, many Amazonian researchers suggest that the social and ecological deterioration confronting native populations results from externally-imposed political, legal and market structures that compel local groups to pursue short-term, unstable economic strategies. Second, these structural explanations are combined with the increasing recognition that indigenous peoples possess a substantial agroecological knowledge to suggest that, if indigenous people receive control of adequate land and resources, they will implement their traditional knowledge in conservative resource management practices. In contrast to these assumptions, this analysis shows that the Machiguenga are not compelled by external forces (such as land tenure, migration policies or economic trends), but instead are active enthusiastic participants seeking to engage the market in order to acquire western goods. Further, despite highly adaptive traditional subsistence patterns and a vast agroecological knowledge, households and communities facing increasing degrees of market integration are progressively altering their traditional cropping strategies, planting practices, labor allocation and land use patterns toward a greater emphasis on commodity crop production and domesticated animal breeding. This increasing concentration on income generating activities subverts the environmentally-friendly nature of traditional productive practices and creates a socially, economically, and ecologically unsustainable system.     

农户生计策略转型及对环境的影响研究综述

随着我国经济形势的不断变化,越来越多的农户从传统的"单一生计"转向"生计多样化"和"优势生计"的发展方向。农户作为农村地区最基本的社会经济单元和行为决策主体,处于人口、经济与资源环境矛盾的核心,其生计策略与生计活动的动态变化势必对所处的自然-社会-经济复合生态系统带来一定的影响。在回顾农户生计研究的历史与现状的基础上,分别从农户生计策略的内涵与类型、农户生计策略转型及其驱动因素、生计策略转型对环境的影响3个方面,系统梳理了国内外学者对农户生计策略转型及对环境的影响的研究进展,尝试性地构建了农户生计策略转型及对环境的影响的基本研究框架,提出未来研究应当体现生计问题本身的动态性和复杂性,并注重可持续生计策略的界定与实现。     

2001: A Household Analysis of Huastec Maya Agriculture and Land Use at the Height of the Coffee Crisis

Over the last decade, historically low market prices for Coffea arabica have affected smallholder shade coffee-growing households throughout northern Latin America. In an effort to better understand household response to the coffee crisis and associated landscape changes, this paper examines agricultural production choices and land use patterns among Huastec Maya coffee-growing households. Using data compiled from 47 household interviews, I describe the cultural-geographical landscape in which the Huastec Maya land use system is embedded. In addition, I examine the economics of household production through a financial cost-benefit analysis and through an exploration of the relationship between land availability and land use patterns. Results show that economic inputs and returns from agriculture are highly variable, and that, in 2001, coffee cultivation was not a viable cash-generating strategy for most households. Land availability was found to have a significant effect on land use decisions, especially the proportion of land area devoted to fallow. Most importantly, however, the case study suggests that a purely economic approach does not suffice in explaining why the Huastec Maya continued to grow coffee in 2001, after years of low prices. Household production choices and livelihood strategies must also be viewed within a cultural context.     

典型沙漠化地区农户生计资本对生计策略的影响——以内蒙古自治区杭锦旗为例

提升农户兼业化程度是解决农户贫困与生态环境脆弱等关键问题的主要途径。采用参与式的农村评估法(PRA),以地处库布其沙漠腹地的杭锦旗为例,在对农户生计资本和生计策略分析的基础上,建立了多项Logistic回归模型,就农户生计策略由纯农型向农兼型和兼农型转化的关键影响因素进行研究。结果表明:(1)农户生计资本整体上比较稀缺,其中自然资本最为匮乏,且生计资本值存在一定差异。(2)农户主要采取纯农型、农兼型、兼农型和非农型四种生计策略;不同生计策略类型的农户在生计活动安排及其收入构成上存在一定差异。(3)人力资本始终是影响农户生计策略转化的关键生计资本;家庭整体劳动能力(H1)、人均耕地面积(N1)、人均年收入(F1)和能够提供援助的亲友数(S2)是影响农户生计策略转化的关键生计资本指标。除N1外,以上生计资本及生计资本指标对农户生计策略由纯农型向农兼型和兼农型转化均具有促进作用。在此基础上,提出了提高杭锦旗农户生计水平,改善区域生态环境的政策建议。