Success criteria and adaptive management for a large-scale wetland restoration project

We are using a 20+ year photographic history of relatively undisturbed and formerly diked sites to predict the restoration trajectories and equilibrium size of a 4,050 ha salt marsh on Delaware Bay, New Jersey (USA). The project was initiated to offset the loss of finfishes from once-through cooling at a local power plant. We used a simple food chain model to estimate the required restoration size. This model assumed that annual macrophyte detritus production and benthic algal production resulted in production of finfishes, including certain species of local interest. Because the marsh surface and intertidal drainage system are used by many finfishes and are the focal points for exchange of detrital materials, the restoration planning focused on both vegetational and hydrogeomorphological parameters. Recolonization bySpartina spp. and other desirable taxa will be promoted by returning a natural hydroperiod and drainage configuration to two types of degraded salt marsh: diked salt hay (Spartina patens) farms and brackish marsh dominated byPhragmites australis. The criteria for success of the project address two questions: What is the bound of expectation for restoration success, and how long will it take to get there? Measurements to be made are macrophyte production, vegetation composition, benthic algal production, and drainage features including stream order, drainage density, channel length, bifurcation ratios and sinuosity. A method for combining these individual parameters into a single success index is also presented. Finally, we developed adaptive management thresholds and corrective measures to guide the restoration process.Corresponding editor: R.E. Turner     

Effects of ecological restoration on beetle assemblages: results from a large-scale experiment in a Mediterranean steppe rangeland

Given that biological conservation cannot prevent the full range of negative impacts on biodiversity, ecological restoration is nowadays commonly acknowledged as a necessary tool for conservation purposes. Here, we report on an ecological rehabilitation project in the La Crau area (south-eastern France), beginning in 2009 when a former industrial orchard (357 ha) was rehabilitated into a Mediterranean rangeland. We assessed the effect of ecological rehabilitation and different additional restoration treatments on beetle assemblages. Seven treatments were considered: the reference steppe, the rehabilitated treatment alone, three additional experimental restoration treatments (soil transfer; nurse species seeding and hay transfer), the control and the edge between the steppe and the former industrial orchard area. All beetle families were considered. Beetles were sampled with pitfall traps for 3 years (2011–2013). Our major finding was a positive effect of soil transfer and nurse species seeding treatments, which promote the characteristic beetle composition of the reference steppe. Nevertheless, strong differences remain between the steppe and the various assessed treatments in terms of composition. Long-term monitoring should therefore now focus on particular beetle indicator species that could reflect the response of the overall characteristic beetle assemblage of the reference steppe.     

Using spider web types as a substitute for assessing web-building spider biodiversity and the success of habitat restoration

Arthropods have been regarded as good indicators of habitat quality due to their sensitivity to changes in habitat state. However, there are many constraints to working with arthropods that make them inaccessible to land managers and most volunteer-driven initiatives. Our study examined a novel approach for detecting changes in web-building spider communities by focussing on the types of webs that spiders build rather than the spider itself. This method was cost-effective, easy-to-use, and importantly, we found a strong congruency between the diversity of web architecture and the diversity of web-building spider genera. The metrics derived from this method could distinguish differences in web-building communities among habitat types that represented a successional gradient, and thus we concluded that the method was useful for monitoring the progress of restoration. Many other applications for the method are possible such as environmental impact assessment and agricultural pest management, and we encourage development in these areas.     

Negotiating multiple motivations in the science and practice of ecological restoration

Summary In a recent piece in EMR, Burbidge et al. discussed some major impediments to linking research and practice in ecological restoration and management. They identified a lack of collaboration between research and practice, poor communication, inappropriate funding and political timelines, change inertia and a lack of capacity as major barriers to improving restoration praxis. They suggest capacity building, communication, collaboration and involving key stakeholders through an iterative cycle of research to management will improve the translation of research into practice (Ecological Management and Restoration 12, 2011, 54). While we agree with the barriers and recommendations identified, they did not consider how the multifaceted motivations embodied in the practice and social context of restoration shape the research–practice nexus. Given the diversity of actors involved in conservation activities, and the focus on conservation on private land and landscape‐scale connectivity in government policy, this is a significant oversight. We suggest it is vital to draw attention to these multifaceted motivations when discussing implementation challenges. This piece draws on our collective insights from three doctoral research projects examining the science, practice and social dimensions of ecological restoration and management in Australia. Our intention is to outline some of the social and contextual influences shaping restoration practice to demonstrate the importance of dialogue between researchers, practitioners and landholders around the goals and expectations of restoration and management interventions. We suggest this is an important aspect of improving the conversation between the actors involved in restoration research, policy and practice.     

Sampling bias and the use of ecological niche modeling in conservation planning: a field evaluation in a biodiversity hotspot

Ecological niche modeling (ENM) has become an important tool in conservation biology. Despite its recent success, several basic issues related to algorithm performance are still being debated. We assess the ability of two of the most popular algorithms, GARP and Maxent, to predict distributions when sampling is geographically biased. We use an extensive data set collected in the Brazilian Cerrado, a biodiversity hotspot in South America. We found that both algorithms give richness predictions that are very similar to other traditionally used richness estimators. Also, both algorithms correctly predicted the presence of most species collected during fieldwork, and failed to predict species collected only in very few cases (usually species with very few known localities, i.e., <5). We also found that Maxent tends to be more sensitive to sampling bias than GARP. However, Maxent performs better when sampling is poor (e.g., low number of data points). Our results indicates that ENM, even when provided with limited and geographically biased localities, is a very useful technique to estimate richness and composition of unsampled areas. We conclude that data generated by ENM maximize the utility of existing biodiversity data, providing a very useful first evaluation. However, for reliable conservation decisions ENM data must be followed by well-designed field inventories, especially for the detection of restricted range, rare species.     

Rapid genetic identification of local provenance seed collection zones for ecological restoration and biodiversity conservation

The ecological restoration of native plant communities requires the collection of large amounts of seed. Use of non-local provenance seed can have detrimental consequences for the success of restoration if there is a home-site advantage, and for nature conservation through the erosion of natural patterns of population genetic structuring and/or genetic swamping (and extirpation) of locally significant genotypes. As part of an ongoing project to genetically delineate local provenance seed collection zones for species within a large urban bushland remnant of high conservation value, we assessed population genetic differentiation in two widespread coastal leguminous species, Acacia rostellifera and A. cochlearis (Fabaceae), commonly used in restoration programmes in SW Australia. Using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), we found very high levels of genetic differentiation among populations, with an analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showing more than 50% of the total genetic variance to be partitioned among populations (Φ_ST=0.58 and 0.51 for A. rostellifera and A. cochlearis, respectively), and marked non-overlap of almost all potential seed source populations from the local population in ordinations. Our results suggest extremely restricted natural dispersal among populations, possibly due to a combination of low seed set, seed dispersal by ants, clonality, a linear distribution of naturally fragmented populations and possibly low outcrossing rates. We suggest a narrow seed collection zone should be applied to these species for the conservation of genetic diversity and natural patterns of population genetic structure, and we highlight the value and importance of provenance evaluation to ecological restoration.     

Making a better case for biodiversity conservation: the BESAFE project

This Editorial to the BESAFE special issue introduces the project and its approach and case studies. The BESAFE (EC 7th Framework programme) project investigated how the effectiveness of different types of arguments for biodiversity conservation depends on the context in which they are used. Our results show that tailoring of argumentation to audience within the course of decision processes is the main factor determining effectiveness. We consistently found arguments linked to intrinsic value (e.g. moral or ethical obligation arguments) as shared and supported widely, and thus offering common ground between parties. Economic arguments are effective as additional ones, but not as replacements. Next generation biodiversity conservation strategies can probably improve their effectiveness by emphasizing and better explaining the synergies between traditional conservation and especially regulating and cultural services.     

A perspective on the evolving science and practice of ecological restoration in Australia

Summary  This brief review of the science and practice of ecological restoration and rehabilitation in Australia shows that, from small isolated efforts in the first half of the 20th century, substantial numbers of programmes are steadily emerging from natural area, agricultural landscape, mining and aquatic management sectors. With support from numerous research programmes in the last two decades, restoration and rehabilitation work is increasing in scale and ecological rigour; and researchers and practitioners are increasingly engaging with the international restoration discourse. Future improvements in prioritization, goal-setting, monitoring, evaluation and communication are, however, still needed to improve Australia's capacity to meet its increasingly serious environmental challenges and do its bit to reduce and halt global degradation.     

Linking biodiversity and ecosystems: towards a unifying ecological theory

Community ecology and ecosystem ecology provide two perspectives on complex ecological systems that have largely complementary strengths and weaknesses. Merging the two perspectives is necessary both to ensure continued scientific progress and to provide society with the scientific means to face growing environmental challenges. Recent research on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning has contributed to this goal in several ways. By addressing a new question of high relevance for both science and society, by challenging existing paradigms, by tightly linking theory and experiments, by building scientific consensus beyond differences in opinion, by integrating fragmented disciplines and research fields, by connecting itself to other disciplines and management issues, it has helped transform ecology not only in content, but also in form. Creating a genuine evolutionary ecosystem ecology that links the evolution of species traits at the individual level, the dynamics of species interactions, and the overall functioning of ecosystems would give new impetus to this much-needed process of unification across ecological disciplines. Recent community evolution models are a promising step in that direction.     

Linking ecological function, biodiversity and habitat: a mini-review focusing on older ecological literature

Current editorial policies of scientific journals in combination with modern technology used for the search of scientific literature intensify the tendency that ecologists lose connections with the knowledge of the past. This is unfortunate because the older ecological literature provides elements for a comparative approach linking ecological function, biodiversity and habitat of large-scale, high-biodiversity systems. Such a comparative approach, seeking common or diverging properties among larger systems, would be a useful complement to current small-scale experimentation, but would require testable hypotheses. Deriving observations, ideas and views from the older ecological literature, we propose such testable hypotheses, linking Ecological processes (EP), Biodiversity (BD), Habitat complexity (HC), Habitat harshness (HH), Habitat extent (HE), Size of organisms (S) and Longevity of organisms (L) in ecosystems throughEP α BD^x1 α HC^x2 α HH^−x3 α HE^x4 α S^x5 α L^x6.This set of allometric relations represents a sort of null model. We use heterotrophic stream ecosystems as an example to illustrate how these hypotheses could be tested, how observed deviations may improve the mechanistic understanding of a system and how our approach could serve to assess scenarios of biodiversity changes. We also briefly discuss how properties of different ecosystem types could be compared with our approach.Gegenwärtige Praktiken von Herausgebern wissenschaftlicher Zeitschriften sowie die Nutzung moderner Technologien bei der Beschaffung wissenschaftlicher Literatur verstärken die Tendenz, dass Ökologen älteres Wissen kaum noch beachten. Dies ist bedauerlich, da die ältere ökologische Literatur Elemente für eine vergleichende Methodik enthält, die ökologische Funktion, Biodiversität und Lebensraum von großräumigen, hochdiversen Systemen verknüpft. Solch eine vergleichende Methodik, die gemeinsame oder divergierende Eigenschaften von Systemen zu ergründen sucht, würde eine nützliche Ergänzung zu gegenwärtigen Experimenten mit kleineren Systemen sein. Allerdings benötigte man zur Anwendung dieser vergleichenden Methodik prüfbare Hypothesen. Wir schlagen solch prüfbare Hypothesen vor, die wir aus Beobachtungen, Ideen und Auffassungen der älteren ökologischen Literatur ableiten. Dafür verknüpfen wir ökologische Prozesse (EP), Biodiversität (BD), Lebensraumkomplexität (HC), Lebensraumrauheit (HH), Lebensraumausdehnung (HE), Körpergröße von Organismen (S) und Lebensdauer von Organismen (L) in Ökosystemen durchEP α BD^x1 α HC^x2 α HH^−x3 α HE^x4 α S^x5 α L^x6.Dieser Satz von allometrischen Beziehungen repräsentiert eine Art von Nullmodell. Am Beispiel heterotropher Fließwasserökosysteme zeigen wir, wie diese Hypothesen geprüft werden könnten, wie abweichende Beobachtungen das mechanistische Verständnis eines Systems verbessern könnten und wie unsere Methodik zur Beurteilung von Szenarien veränderter Biodiversität dienen könnte. Zudem diskutieren wir, wie Eigenschaften verschiedener Ökosystemtypen mit unserer Methodik verglichen werden könnten.     

Wetland restoration to enhance biodiversity in urban areas: a comparative analysis

Wetlands mitigation for any activity can be applied to avoid or minimize damage and restore, enhance, or create wetlands as well. New tools for mitigating and creating wetlands are available, including the Wetland Impact Assessment. This article explores many current issues in wetland mitigation and mitigation strategies, using case studies for illustration. We include some general guidelines for successful wetland mitigation based primarily on existing literature review in several cities. We use comparison and analyses on biodiversity improvement and various wetland functions, including flood-risk management, linking people to nature through urban regeneration, and connecting with the natural environment. Also, restoration, enhancement, mitigation, and creation analyses are included.     

Upscaling restoration of native biodiversity: A New Zealand perspective

Efforts are being made to upscale restoration of New Zealand's native ecosystems. Success depends, however, on consideration of several key issues that need to be built into restoration planning, implementation and monitoring. This study makes eight recommendations to improve the prospect of obtaining the hoped‐for biodiversity conservation outcomes.     

Arguing for biodiversity in practice: a case study from the UK

With a web of different local actors, often with different perspectives and interests, turning ideas into practice for biodiversity often involves communicating, negotiating, bargaining and, therefore, argumentation. Within this process arguments are selected by actors, to achieve their goals, with varying levels of effectiveness. We examine the use of arguments in UK national biodiversity policies and at the local level from the perspective of those putting forward and receiving arguments. We assess the positive and negative framings within arguments and the effectiveness of arguments. Using interviews and formal documents as sources of data, we analyse nine argumentative interactions from a case study in the Greater Manchester area in the UK. Our findings highlight differences between arguments in national biodiversity policy and those used at the local level. We also show a link between positive framing and salient arguments that were particularly effective. In more polarised, high conflict situations the credibility of the argument, specifically how well it aligned with policy frameworks, strongly influenced its effectiveness. These findings suggest that selecting arguments that identify common ground at the local level contributes to effective outcomes by highlighting areas of mutual benefit. Where this is not possible, a strong policy framework for the conservation of biodiversity is important. A combination of bottom up and top down approaches is most likely to provide effective arguments for biodiversity.     

水土流失生态修复生态效益评价指标体系研究进展

建立合理的评价指标体系是科学评价区域水土流失生态修复效益的基础.在分析水土流失生态修复生态效益评价指标体系的研究现状与存在问题的基础上,结合国内外最新的研究成果,提出今后的生态效益评价指标体系除体现蓄水保土效益外,还应加强生态系统的植被结构、生物多样性和生态过程3个方面的监测与评价,进而从生态系统健康层面上评价水土流失生态修复效益.

Abstract：

To establish a rational evaluation index system is the basis of scientifically evaluating the benefit of ecological restoration for controlling regional water and soil loss. Based on the anal-ysis of current researches on ecological benefit evaluation index system of ecological restoration for controlling water and soil loss, and the latest research achievements, it was suggested that be-sides the benefit of water and soil conservation, the monitoring and evaluation of vegetation struc-ture, biological diversity, and ecological processes should be strengthened to make that the bene-fit evaluation of ecological restoration for water and soil loss can be conducted on ecosystem health level.