On possible reversible changes between arational and rational behavior of society

In our recent book,Looking at History Through Mathematics (MIT Press, 1968), we discussed two possible mechanisms of a transition of a society from an “arational” behavior, in which most things are accepted uncritically on faith, to a rational behavior, characterized by a critical appraisal of everything. Both mechanisms lead to irreversible changes, which eventually result asymptotically in a complete rationalization of society. In the present paper it is shown that a generalization of the second mechanism may lead to alternations between rational and arational behavior of a society. The reversal from rational to arational behavior is due to the circumstance that for some people hard thinking is either impossible or at least highly unpleasant. It appears, on the basis of the model discussed here, that acomplete rationalization of any society is unattainable.     

Reification of social systems

In his 1991 book, Intraspecific Variation in the Social Systems of Wild Vertebrates, Dale Lott¹ reviews the evidence that a single social system does not characterize a species. Rather, he says, the longer a species is studied and the wider the range of habitats in which it is studied, the more variation is discovered. I strongly recommend this book as a concise review of recent studies on nonprimate vertebrates for anyone needing a comparative perspective on a question that deeply concerns students of primates. The clarity of Lott's exposition led me to ask several questions. If differences in the behavior of populations can be described in terms of differences in the behavior of individuals, what is gained by speaking in terms of a social system? What is a social system anyway? Is it possible that the social system is a concept that might actually get in the way of understanding social behavior?     

Racial categories as resources and constraints in everyday interactions: Implications for racialism and non-racialism in post-apartheid South Africa

The anti-apartheid struggle was characterized by tensions between the opposing ideologies of non-racialism (exemplified by the Freedom Charter) and racialism (exemplified by Black Consciousness). These tensions have remained prevalent in public policies and discourse, and in the writings of social scientists, in the post-apartheid period. In this paper I examine some ways in which issues of whether, when, and how race matters become visible in everyday interactions in South Africa, and what insights this may offer with respect to these ongoing tensions. Specifically, I employ an ethnomethodological, conversation analytic approach to examine some ways in which racial categories are treated as resources for action or constraints on action. I conclude by arguing that these findings point to the contingent and situational operation of a practical non-racialism (as well as practical racialism), and thus to the achievement of these ideologies in the moment-by-moment unfolding of interactions.     

Effects of social reorganization on cellular immunity in male cynomolgus monkeys

Exposure to acute stressors has been shown to impair cellular immunity in human beings and other animal species. Comparatively little is known, however, about the effects of long-term stressors on immune function and how individual behavioral characteristics may mediate differences in immune function and clinical disease susceptibility. To determine the effects of social stress on cellular immunity and reactivation of a latent herpesvirus, 20 Herpes B virus-positive male cynomolgus monkeys were exposed to four periodic reorganizations of social group memberships over 5 months. Observations were made to categorize individuals as high or low in expression of aggressive, fearful, and affiliative behaviors. Complete blood counts, lymphocyte proliferation tests, and natural killer cell cytotoxicity assays were performed immediately before and 4 days after reorganizations. Herpesvirus-specific immunoglobulin G antibody levels were measured, and oral and conjunctival swabs were cultured for virus. Reorganization was associated with increased lymphocyte counts (P = 0.0009) and decreased lymphocyte proliferation in response to phytohemagglutinin (P < 0.005), particularly among monkeys showing high levels of fear (P = 0.0137). High-aggressive monkeys showed lower baseline natural killer cell activity (P = 0.0013) and higher lymphocyte counts (P = 0.013) than low-aggressive monkeys. Herpesvirus antibody titers decreased over time (P < 0.004) and no positive virus cultures were obtained. Measures of cellular immunity and behavior were unrelated to virus-specific antibody titers. These results suggest that repeated exposure to a social stressor alters several measures of cellular immunity, and that some of these changes may be predicted by individual differences in agonistic behavior. In contrast to human studies, the results suggest that some psychological stressors may not cause reactivation of a common herpesvirus in this species. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Social Behavior,Reproductive Strategies,and Population Genetic Structure of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lagothrix poeppigii</Emphasis>

For species of primates in which females emigrate, we would expect males within groups to be related to one another. Kin selection theory suggests that these males should associate preferentially with one another, be more affiliative and cooperative with one another than females are, and compete less overtly with one another over reproductive opportunities than males in female philopatric taxa do. Precisely these patterns of social behavior characterize well-studied populations of 2 of the 3 atelin primate genera: spider monkeys (Ateles) and muriquis (Brachyteles). For the third atelin genus, Lagothrix, patterns of intragroup social behavior have been less well-documented. We studied the social and reproductive behavior of lowland woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii) in Ecuador during a one-year observational study and subsequently used molecular techniques to investigate population genetic structure and dispersal patterns for this taxon. Among adult male woolly monkeys, both affiliative and agonistic interactions were rare, and males were seldom in close proximity to one another. Relationships among male woolly monkeys are best characterized as tolerant, especially in the context of mating wherein direct competition among males was minimal despite the fact that females mated with multiple males. Relationships among females were likewise generally tolerant but nonaffiliative, though females often directed harassment towards copulating pairs. Affiliative interactions that did occur among woolly monkeys tended to be directed either between the sexes—primarily from female to male—or from younger towards older males, and the proximity partners of females tended to be members of the opposite sex. These results suggest that bonds between the sexes may be more important than same-sex social relationships and that direct female-female competition is an important feature of woolly monkey reproductive biology. Our genetic results indicate that, as in other atelins, dispersal by females is common, but some male dispersal likely occurs as well. In some but not all groups we studied, nonjuvenile males within social groups were more closely related to one another on average than females were, which is consistent with greater male than female philopatry. However, differences in these patterns among our study groups may reflect local variation in dispersal behavior.     

Some remarks on the mathematical bio-sociology of the relativity of injustice

The author's theory of the adoption of certain types of behavior patterns (Rashevsky, N., 1957, “Contributions to the Theory Initiative Behavior”.Bull. Maths. Biophysics,19, 91–119; 1968,Looking at History through Mathematics, Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press) consisting of elementary behaviors for each of which there is an opposite one and the two are mutually exclusive, is applied to describe the changes in the general type of behavior of a society. The elementary acts of which the whole problem consists may be either overt activities or beliefs or opinions. The general behavior patternsadopted by the society are considered as the “proper” or “just” ones. Any deviation from it in either one or more of the component elementary behaviors is considered as “unjust” and is subject to some punitive action. The total number of possible mutually exclusive behavior patterns is very large but finite. Within this very large range of possible patterns, we find that this notion of justice is relative, because changes from any behavior pattern to any other may occur. It is further shown that the amount of punishment for the deviation from the accepted pattern in order to be effective as well as efficient must be applied in different ways to different individuals even for the same transgression.     

The social structure of the Oregon troop of Japanese macaques

Intensive observations were made of a troop ofM. fuscata which was kept in a large outdoor corral at the Oregon Regional Primate Research Center during the summer and fall of 1967. The intent of the observations was to determine whether the troop's normal patterns of social behavior and social structure seemed to be affected by confinement in the corral. Substantial deviations were noted between the spatial structure of the Oregon troop and the central-peripheral structure typical of free-ranging troops in Japan. There was also some indication of heightened aggressiveness within the corral but other aspects of social behavior seemed unaltered.     

A sociological approach to biology

The paper develops further some suggestions made previously (Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics,28, 283–308, 1966) that certain biological phenomena may be more easily interpreted from a “sociological” point of view by considering the organism as a social aggregate of cells and a cell as a social aggregate of genes. In this light the problems of origin of life on earth, of aging, and of parasitism and symbiosis are discussed. The notion of social aggregates of different orders is introduced.     

No evidence that genetic compatibility drives extra‐pair behavior in female blue‐footed boobies

The function of female birds' extra‐pair (EP) behavior has remained an unresolved question in ornithology and behavioral ecology for > 30 yr. The genetic compatibility hypothesis (GCH) proposes that females benefit by acquiring biological sires that yield more heterozygous, and therefore fitter, offspring than their social mates. We used ten polymorphic microsatellite loci to test GCH predictions and its assumption that fitness increases with heterozygosity in blue‐footed boobies Sula nebouxii, a long‐lived tropical seabird. Our predictions were not supported. Heterozygosity was uncorrelated with quality indicators (fledging probability, fledgling or adult body size or mass, adult ornamentation, mean breeding success). Females were no more likely to have EP behavior or chicks when their social mates were less heterozygous or compatible, nor were EP males more heterozygous or compatible than the males they cuckolded. Finally, EP chicks were no more heterozygous than within‐pair chicks overall or in half‐sib comparisons, nor were within‐pair chicks from all‐within‐pair nests more heterozygous that those with EP nest‐mates. There are both methodological and biological explanations for these consistently negative results. Inadequate sample size is possible but unlikely, since our samples were comparable or larger than those of similar studies with significant findings. Lack of identity disequilibrium (within‐individual heterozygosity correlation) among our marker loci could be responsible, and suggests either insufficient marker coverage or lack of inbreeding, bottleneck, and/or admixture. An independent social pedigree revealed infrequent inbreeding, suggesting that pressure on females to select sires that maximize offspring heterozygosity may be genuinely lax. Alternatively, it is possible that the GCH is only upheld when selection on young is strongest; this would not be detected in our sample, which was taken during an extremely productive year. Whatever their cause, our results expand the taxonomic breadth of avian EP behavior analyses and should be considered in future evaluations of the GCH.     

Epigamic display and unique mating position inWyeomyia arthrostigma (Diptera: Culicidae)

The mating behavior ofWyeomyia arthrostigma is more complex than that reported forW. smithii. Like some other genera in the tribe Sabethini, flyingW. arthrostigma males approach females perching on vertical sticks. A male aligns himself next to a female by seizing her wing and flipping sideways to land next to her, rather than beneath her. He then performs a series of abdominal bobbing movements, the pair achieves superficial genital coupling while the male's proboscis rotates and snaps down, and the antennae spread farther apart. Finally, the pair shifts to full copulation, and in this phase insemination occurs. In the copulatory position the abdomens of male and female are almost at right angles to each other, made possible by a twisting of the male's terminal segments. The nature of the mating process and its similarity to some elements ofSabethes andTopomyia mating indicate that males may be performing a courtship display.     

Functional aspects of reconciliation among captive long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis)

After an agonistic conflict between two animals, they may exchange affiliative social contacts. The function of this reconciliation behavior is thought to be the repair of the social relationship between the two opponents. We examined the hypothesis that reconciliation is socially effective because it may also lead to a reduction of the victim's acute stress. Reconciliation was studied in a well-established captive group of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). The behavior of the victim in a 10 min period after the end of an agonistic interaction was recorded and compared with that of a control observation made on the same animal the next day. The tendency to reconcile was elevated above control levels only during the first 3 min. Reconciliation led to a fast reduction in scratching rates and to a decrease of the reoccurrence of aggression received. Losers took the initiative to reconcile more than expected. Dominants granted reconciliation depending on their relatedness with the victims and on the quality of the relationship with them. After those interactions in which contra-aggression and no clear submission occurred, the reconciliation rate was remarkably high. These results suggest that reconciliation can be an effective means to reduce the victim's acute stress and that its function in repairing social relationships can partly be mediated by its physiological effects. The intimate relation between the quality of the social relationship and the conciliatory tendency can be extrapolated to explain interspecific variation.     

Animal behavior and the captive management of wild mammals: A personal view

Behaviorists can undertake noninvasive studies of zoo animals using only the simplest of research tools, unlike those biologists who are concerned with functions below the level of the whole, living organism. With careful interpretation, the results of behavioral studies can be applied to improve the management, husbandry, and exhibition of wild mammals in captivity. This often involves comparisons with research results obtained from studies of animals in the wild, since the behavior of captive specimens may in some measure be altered. Examples are given involving the breeding biology or social organization of three species: (1) barasingha or swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), (2) mongoose lemur (Lemur mongoz), and (3) drill (Papio leucophaeus). Suggestions are made to improve the allocation of time and resources for research by zoo personnel, including a greater reliance on cooperative efforts to solve problems of common interest.     

Situating Women's Reproductive Activities

In her pathbreaking book, Abortion and Woman's Choice, Rosalind Pollack Petchesky astutely observed that, in many societies, control over the methods and goals of reproduction is a critical site of contest, particularly between women and men. Yet the circumstances under which reproductive relations will be characterized by conflict, consensus, or some of both have seldom been systematically explored. In this paper, I therefore offer three examples of different structural contexts in which either women or men had the preponderance of power to influence key aspects of women's reproductive activities. I argue that while structural factors, notably the distribution of economic, political, and institutional resources, are fundamental, they do not only act directly but are experienced, interpreted, and made meaningful through specific cultural processes, particularly gender ideologies, norms about morality, and beliefs about how women should behave. It is together that these structural factors and cultural processes shape the climates and contexts within which women's reproductive activities are situated and take place, [reproduction, gender politics, Latin America, Mexican Americans]     

Effects of shell status and social context on the agonistic behavior of the tropical hermit crab,Clibanarius signatus

In the hermit crabClibanarius signatus, the influence of both shell status and social context on agonistic behavior was examined. The experimental hermits were of the same size and sex, but differed in the status of the inhabited shell, which was either optimal, sub-optimal or damaged. The evidence from this experiment suggests that the agonistic behavior ofC. signatus is influenced to a great extent by asymmetries in the resource value; attacks are mainly performed by crabs which inhabit shells in a relatively poor condition and are mostly directed towards opponents with better-fitting shells. However, this effect differs according to the social context, being more pronounced when the potential gain is greater. Shell fights are decidedly more complex than most animal combats; more work is certainly needed to understand the mechanisms underlying resource assessment and decisions made during hermit crabs' interactions.     

DETERMINATION OF SOME MOLECULAR PARAMETERS OF TRYPTOPHAN HYDROXYLASE FROM RAT MIDBRAIN AND MURINE MAST CELL

Amphetamine, a potent sympathomimetic amine, has powerful stimulant actions in the central nervous system. These actions are believed to be related to the influence of amphetamine on release and uptake of catecholamine neurotransmitters. The [¹⁴C]deoxyglucose method makes it possible to study changes in cerebral metabolic rate in different areas of gray and white matter. Because of the close relationship between metabolic rate and functional activity, this method may be used to identify specific structures in the brain in which functional activity is altered. The [¹⁴C]deoxyglucose method was used to explore for changes in metabolic rate produced by d-and l-amphetamine (5 mg/kg) in forty gray and four white matter structures in normal conscious rats. d-Amphetamine produced increases in local cerebral glucose utilization in a number of components of the extrapyramidal motor system, as well as in some other structures known to contain dopamine-producing and/or dopaminoceptive cells. The largest increases after d-amphetamine administration occurred in the subthalamic nucleus and the zona reticulata of the substantia nigra. l-Amphetamine produced increases in some but not all of these same structures, and these were generally smaller than those observed with d-amphetamine. Decreases in local cerebral glucose utilization after either d- or l-amphetamine administration were found in the habenula and the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus. The effects in the suprachiasmatic nuclei may reflect their normal diurnal rhythm in metabolic rate. These results indicate that amphetamines may influence behavior through effects on specific regions of the brain. Only some of these regions have previously been studied as possible sites of action of amphetamine.     

Multiple relational equilibria: Polymorphism,metamorphosis and other possibly similar phenomena

In a preceding paper (Rashevsky, 1969. “Outline of a Unified Approach to Physics, Biology and Sociology.”Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics,31, 159–198) certain isomorphisms between biological and social systems on the one hand and physical systems on the other were studied. The notion or relational forces, of which ordinary physical forces are a particular case, was introduced. In the present paper an attempt is made to establish analogies between stable equilibria in physical systems, equilibria due to physical forces, and stable equilibria in biological and social systems which are due to purely relational forces. The notion of relational forces causing multiple equilibria similar to multiple equilibria in some physical systems is studied, and it is outlined how this notion may possibly help the understanding of such phenomena as polymorphism, metamorphosis and the existence of rudimentary organs or rudimentary functions.     

An ethogram forLemur fulvus

As a result of over 2000 hours of observation of two captiveLemur fulvus groups, their social behavior can now be provisionally described and categorized. Characteristic postures forL. fulvus include the normal standing or walking posture, often accompanied by low-pitched contact grunting, and the tightly curled resting posture. Disturbances in the vicinity of the group may lead to gradational changes in individual postures, culminating in the mob display. Greeting behaviors include passing without interaction, the sniff greeting, tactile greetings, and anogenital marking of one lemur by another. Allogrooming, mutual grooming, and reciprocal grooming may follow initial contact.L. fulvus individuals scent-mark spaces and objects, doing so at an increased rate during the mating season. Throughout most of the year little behavior occurs which can accurately be labelled ‘aggressive’. True agonistic behavior has only been observed during certain phases of the annual cycle: birth season, mating season, and the time of sexual maturation of juvenile animals. Sexual behavior is also rarely observed. Maternal behavior is interesting not only in terms of mother-infant interactions but also with regard to changes in mother-other interactions over time. Finally, play behavior can be distinguished from other kinds of behavior with similar behavioral components by looking at itsGestalt. Most play can be classified as either primarily locomotor/manipulative or primarily social.     

Sociality in Callithrix penicillata: II. Individual Strategies During Intergroup Encounters

In social animals, intergroup interactions, whether through agonistic and competitive behaviors or affiliative ones, can influence important parameters such as home range, territory sizes, and access to resources, which may directly affect both female and male fitness. We studied the intergroup interaction patterns of a wild group of black-tufted-ear marmosets (Callithrix penicillata) in central Brazil. Agonistic interactions occurred at low frequencies during intergroup encounters. The marmosets directed agonistic interactions without physical aggression primarily against same-sex individuals, suggesting that male and female aggression patterns are shaped by their sexual interests. However, females of the focal group also directed agonistic behavior toward extragroup males that attempted copulation. The marmosets appeared to use intergroup encounters to gather information about possible partners and extragroup reproductive opportunities. Intergroup sexual interactions occurred mainly in the form of copulations or attempted copulations by all adults, with the exception of the dominant female. Our results suggest that a possible reproductive strategy used by males is to attempt fertilization of extragroup females. Adult males copulated with the same extragroup female during several opportunities, which suggests sperm competition or the establishment of social bonds with neighboring females.     

An enemy of your enemy is your friend: Impact of predators on aggregation behavior of gammarids

Predation pressure may affect many aspects of prey behavior, including forming groups and changes in social interactions. We studied the aggregation behavior of competing gammarids Dikerogammarus villosus and Pontogammarus robustoides (Amphipoda, Crustacea) to check whether they modify their preferences for conspecifics or heterospecifics in response to predator (the racer goby Babka gymnotrachelus) kairomones in the presence or absence of stone shelters (alternative protection source). Both species exhibited preferences toward shelters occupied by conspecifics over empty shelters and conspecifics apart from shelters, suggesting that their aggregation depends not only on habitat heterogeneity, but also on their social interactions. Moreover, gammarids in the presence of shelters (safer conditions) preferred conspecifics over heterospecifics, but predator kairomones made them form aggregations irrespective of species. In the predator presence, P. robustoides increased its aggregation level only in the sheltered conditions, whereas D. villosus exhibited this response only in the absence of shelters, suggesting that this behavior can protect it against predators. Therefore, we tested the antipredator effectiveness of D. villosus aggregations by exposing them to fish predation. Gobies foraged most effectively on immobile single gammarids compared to moving and aggregated individuals. Fish also avoided aggregated prey, confirming the protective character of aggregations. We have demonstrated that the predator presence increases aggregation level of prey gammarids and affects their social behavior by reducing antagonistic interactions and avoidance between competing species. This is likely to affect their distribution and functioning in the wild, where predator pressure is a standard situation.     

Middle Jurassic tetrapod burrows preserved in association with the large sauropod Omeisaurus jiaoi from the Sichuan Basin,China

Here we report a Jurassic tetrapod burrow preserved in association with the partial skeleton of a large sauropod specimen of Omeisaurus jiaoi from Zigong, Sichuan Province, China. The ichnofossil can be divided into two parts, which may indicate two individual trace makers and some social behavior, although the possibility that they are two portions of one trace by a single trace maker cannot be ruled out. The burrow trace was examined via petrographic thin sections and carbonate analysis. Considering the spatial relationship of the burrows and the skeleton, it is likely that decomposition of the sauropod carcass preceded the formation of the burrows. It is possible that the process of decomposition improved the humus level of the soil, which would have attracted more soil-dwelling invertebrates and, by consequence, tetrapod predators thereof. The discovery of ZDM5051 has increased our understanding of global ichnofossil diversity.