Formation of functional synaptic connections between cultured cortical neurons from agrin‐deficient mice

Numerous studies suggest that the extracellular matrix protein agrin directs the formation of the postsynaptic apparatus at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). Strong support for this hypothesis comes from the observation that the high density of acetylcholine receptors (AChR) normally present at the neuromuscular junction fails to form in muscle of embryonic agrin mutant mice. Agrin is expressed by many populations of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS), suggesting that this molecule may also play a role in neuron–neuron synapse formation. To test this hypothesis, we examined synapse formation between cultured cortical neurons isolated from agrin‐deficient mouse embryos. Our data show that glutamate receptors accumulate at synaptic sites on agrin‐deficient neurons. Moreover, electrophysiological analysis demonstrates that functional glutamatergic and gamma‐aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic synapses form between mutant neurons. The frequency and amplitude of miniature postsynaptic glutamatergic and GABAergic currents are similar in mutant and age‐matched wild‐type neurons during the first 3 weeks in culture. These results demonstrate that neuron‐specific agrin is not required for formation and early development of functional synaptic contacts between CNS neurons, and suggest that mechanisms of interneuronal synaptogenesis are distinct from those regulating synapse formation at the neuromuscular junction. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 39: 547–557, 1999     

Formation of functional synaptic connections between cultured cortical neurons from agrin-deficient mice.

Numerous studies suggest that the extracellular matrix protein agrin directs the formation of the postsynaptic apparatus at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). Strong support for this hypothesis comes from the observation that the high density of acetylcholine receptors (AChR) normally present at the neuromuscular junction fails to form in muscle of embryonic agrin mutant mice. Agrin is expressed by many populations of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS), suggesting that this molecule may also play a role in neuron-neuron synapse formation. To test this hypothesis, we examined synapse formation between cultured cortical neurons isolated from agrin-deficient mouse embryos. Our data show that glutamate receptors accumulate at synaptic sites on agrin-deficient neurons. Moreover, electrophysiological analysis demonstrates that functional glutamatergic and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic synapses form between mutant neurons. The frequency and amplitude of miniature postsynaptic glutamatergic and GABAergic currents are similar in mutant and age-matched wild-type neurons during the first 3 weeks in culture. These results demonstrate that neuron-specific agrin is not required for formation and early development of functional synaptic contacts between CNS neurons, and suggest that mechanisms of interneuronal synaptogenesis are distinct from those regulating synapse formation at the neuromuscular junction.     

Assembly,plasticity and selective vulnerability to disease of mouse neuromuscular junctions

Although physiological differences among neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) have long been known, NMJs have usually been considered as one type of synapse, restricting their potential value as model systems to investigate mechanisms controlling synapse assembly and plasticity. Here we discuss recent evidence that skeletal muscles in the mouse can be subdivided into two previously unrecognized subtypes, designated FaSyn and DeSyn muscles. These muscles differ in the pattern of neuromuscular synaptogenesis during embryonic development. Differences between classes are intrinsic to the muscles, and manifest in the absence of innervation or agrin. The distinct rates of synaptogenesis in the periphery may influence processes of circuit maturation through retrograde signals. While NMJs on FaSyn and DeSyn muscles exhibit a comparable anatomical organization in postnatal mice, treatments that challenge synaptic stability result in nerve sprouting, NMJ remodeling, and ectopic synaptogenesis selectively on DeSyn muscles. This anatomical plasticity of NMJs diminishes greatly between 2 and 6 months postnatally. NMJs lacking this plasticity are lost selectively and very early on in mouse models of motoneuron disease, suggesting that disease-associated motoneuron dysfunction may fail to initiate maintenance processes at “non-plastic” NMJs. Transgenic mice overexpressing growth-promoting proteins in motoneurons exhibit greatly enhanced stimulus-induced sprouting restricted to DeSyn muscles, supporting the notion that anatomical plasticity at the NMJ is primarily controlled by processes in the postsynaptic muscle. The discovery that entire muscles in the mouse differ substantially in the anatomical plasticity of their synapses establishes NMJs as a uniquely advantageous experimental system to investigate mechanisms controlling synaptic rearrangements at defined synapses in vivo.     

Neuron-astrocyte signaling in the development and plasticity of neural circuits

Emerging evidence indicates that signaling between perisynaptic astrocytes and neurons at the tripartite synapse plays an important role during the critical period when neural circuits are formed and refined. Cross-talk between astrocytes and neurons during development mediates synaptogenesis, synapse elimination and structural plasticity through a variety of secreted and contact-dependent signals. Recent live imaging studies reveal a dynamic and cooperative interplay between astrocytes and neurons at synapses that is guided by a variety of molecular cues. A unifying theme from these recent findings is that astrocytes can promote the development and plasticity of synaptic circuits. Insight into the molecular mechanisms by which astrocytes regulate the wiring of the brain during development could lead to new therapeutic strategies to promote repair and rewiring of neural circuits in the mature brain following CNS injury and neurodegenerative disease.     

The role of agrin,Lrp4 and MuSK during dendritic arborization and synaptogenesis in cultured embryonic CNS neurons

The role of agrin, Lrp4 and MuSK, key organizers of neuromuscular synaptogenesis, in the developing CNS is only poorly understood. We investigated the role of these proteins in cultured mouse embryonic cortical neurons from wildtype and from Lrp4- and MuSK-deficient mice. Neurons from Lrp4-deficient mice had fewer but longer primary dendrites and a decreased density of puncta containing excitatory and inhibitory synapse-associated proteins. Neurons from MuSK-deficient mice had an altered dendritic branching pattern but no change in the density of puncta stained by antibodies against synapse-associated proteins. Transfection of TM-agrin compensated the dendritic branching deficits in Lrp4-deficient but not in MuSK-deficient neurons. TM-agrin transfection increased the density of excitatory synaptic puncta in MuSK-deficient but not in Lrp4-deficient mice and reduced the number of inhibitory synaptic puncta irrespective of MuSK and Lrp4 expression. Addition of purified soluble agrin to microisland cultures of cortical neurons revealed an Lrp4-dependent increase in the size and density of glutamatergic synaptic puncta and in mEPSC but not in mIPSC frequency and amplitude. Thus, agrin induced an Lrp4-independent increase in dendritic branch complexity, an Lrp4-dependent increase of excitatory synaptic puncta and an Lrp4- and MuSK-independent decrease in the density of puncta containing inhibitory synapse-associated proteins. These results establish selective roles for agrin, Lrp4 and MuSK during dendritogenesis and synaptogenesis in cultured CNS neurons.     

Stimulated ErbB4 internalization is necessary for neuregulin signaling in neurons

Neuregulin-1 (NRG1) plays an important role in neural development, synapse formation, and synaptic plasticity by activating ErbB receptor tyrosine kinases. Although ligand-induced endocytosis has been shown to be important for many receptor tyrosine kinases, whether NRG1 signaling depends on ErbB endocytosis remains controversial. Here, we provide evidence that ErbB4, a prominent ErbB protein in the brain, becomes internalized in NRG1-stimulated neurons. The induced ErbB4 endocytosis requires its kinase activity. Remarkably, inhibition of ErbB endocytosis attenuates NRG1-induced activation of Erk and Akt in neurons. These observations indicate a role of ErbB endocytosis in NRG1 signaling in neurons.     

Anterograde Activin Signaling Regulates Postsynaptic Membrane Potential and GluRIIA/B Abundance at the Drosophila Neuromuscular Junction

Members of the TGF-β superfamily play numerous roles in nervous system development and function. In Drosophila, retrograde BMP signaling at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is required presynaptically for proper synapse growth and neurotransmitter release. In this study, we analyzed whether the Activin branch of the TGF-β superfamily also contributes to NMJ development and function. We find that elimination of the Activin/TGF-β type I receptor babo, or its downstream signal transducer smox, does not affect presynaptic NMJ growth or evoked excitatory junctional potentials (EJPs), but instead results in a number of postsynaptic defects including depolarized membrane potential, small size and frequency of miniature excitatory junction potentials (mEJPs), and decreased synaptic densities of the glutamate receptors GluRIIA and B. The majority of the defective smox synaptic phenotypes were rescued by muscle-specific expression of a smox transgene. Furthermore, a mutation in actβ, an Activin-like ligand that is strongly expressed in motor neurons, phenocopies babo and smox loss-of-function alleles. Our results demonstrate that anterograde Activin/TGF-β signaling at the Drosophila NMJ is crucial for achieving normal abundance and localization of several important postsynaptic signaling molecules and for regulating postsynaptic membrane physiology. Together with the well-established presynaptic role of the retrograde BMP signaling, our findings indicate that the two branches of the TGF-β superfamily are differentially deployed on each side of the Drosophila NMJ synapse to regulate distinct aspects of its development and function.     

Synaptic transmission is impaired at neuronal autonomic synapses in agrin-null mice

Neuronal synapse formation is a multistep process regulated by several pre- and postsynaptic adhesion and signaling proteins. Recently, we found that agrin acts as one such synaptogenic factor at neuronal synapses in the PNS by demonstrating that structural synapse formation is impaired in the superior cervical ganglia (SCG) of z+ agrin-deficient mice and in SCG cultures derived from those animals. Here, we tested whether synaptic function is defective in agrin-null (AGD-/-) ganglia and began to define agrin's mechanism of action. Our electrophysiological recordings of compound action potentials showed that presynaptic stimulation evoked action potentials in approximately 40% of AGD-/- ganglionic neurons compared to 90% of wild-type neurons; moreover, transmission could not be potentiated as in wild-type or z+ agrin-deficient ganglia. Intracellular recordings also showed that nerve-evoked excitatory postsynaptic potentials in AGD-/- neurons were only 1/3 the size of those in wild-type neurons and mostly subthreshold. Consistent with these defects in transmission, we found an approximately 40-50% decrease in synapse number in AGD-/- ganglia and cultures, and decreased levels of differentiation at the residual synapses in culture. Furthermore, surface levels of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) were equivalent in cultured AGD-/- and wild-type neurons, and depolarization reduced the synaptic localization of AChRs in AGD-/- but not wild-type neurons. These findings provide the first direct demonstration that agrin is required for proper structural and functional development of an interneuronal synapse in vivo. Moreover, they suggest a novel role for agrin, in stabilizing the postsynaptic density of nAChR at nascent neuronal synapses.     

Glycobiology of the synapse

Synapses are the fundamental units of connectivity that link together the nervous system. Lectin studies from 30 years ago suggested that specific glycans are concentrated at neuromuscular synapses in the peripheral nervous system and at excitatory synapses in the brain. Subsequent studies have confirmed that particular glycan structures are localized at these synapses, including polysialic acid, high mannose, the cytotoxic T cell antigen, and forms of heparan sulfate. Though the role of these molecules in synapse formation and function is still poorly understood, there is increasing evidence that the function of agrin, a synaptogenic factor in neuromuscular formation, is modulated by several glycans. In addition, the recent generation of ST8SiaIV null mice strongly suggests a role for polysialic acid in synaptic plasticity in the some regions of the central nervous system.     

Agrin and Synaptic Laminin Are Required to Maintain Adult Neuromuscular Junctions

As synapses form and mature the synaptic partners produce organizing molecules that regulate each other’s differentiation and ensure precise apposition of pre- and post-synaptic specializations. At the skeletal neuromuscular junction (NMJ), these molecules include agrin, a nerve-derived organizer of postsynaptic differentiation, and synaptic laminins, muscle-derived organizers of presynaptic differentiation. Both become concentrated in the synaptic cleft as the NMJ develops and are retained in adulthood. Here, we used mutant mice to ask whether these organizers are also required for synaptic maintenance. Deletion of agrin from a subset of adult motor neurons resulted in the loss of acetylcholine receptors and other components of the postsynaptic apparatus and synaptic cleft. Nerve terminals also atrophied and eventually withdrew from muscle fibers. On the other hand, mice lacking the presynaptic organizer laminin-α4 retained most of the synaptic cleft components but exhibited synaptic alterations reminiscent of those observed in aged animals. Although we detected no marked decrease in laminin or agrin levels at aged NMJs, we observed alterations in the distribution and organization of these synaptic cleft components suggesting that such changes could contribute to age-related synaptic disassembly. Together, these results demonstrate that pre- and post-synaptic organizers actively function to maintain the structure and function of adult NMJs.     

Expression and localization of agrin during sympathetic synapse formation in vitro

Agrin is a motoneuron-derived signaling factor that plays a key organizing role in the initial stages of neuromuscular synapse formation. Agrin is expressed in other regions of the developing central and peripheral nervous systems, however, raising the possibility that it also directs the formation of some interneuronal synapses. To address this question, we have examined the expression and localization of agrin during formation of cholinergic, interneuronal synapses in the sympathetic system. In the superior cervical ganglia (SCG) in vivo, we found that agrin is highly expressed, and that it is present at, but is not limited to, synapses. In SCG neuronal cultures that were treated with ciliary neurotrophic factor to induce a uniform cholinergic phenotype, we found that agrin immunostaining colocalized precisely with cholinergic terminals and aggregates of neuronal acetylcholine receptor on the neuronal cell bodies and dendrites. Moreover, we found that alpha-dystroglycan, which is a potential receptor for agrin, is also concentrated at these cholinergic synaptic contacts. Finally, the SCG neurons expressed the C-terminal isoform of agrin that is neural-specific and highly active in synaptogenesis, and also the N-terminal splice isoform that occurs as a type II transmembrane protein. These findings show that agrin is specifically localized at sympathetic synapses in vitro, and are consistent with it playing a role in interneuronal synapse formation.     

神经胶质细胞与突触可塑性研究新进展

突触的可塑性是研究学习与记忆的基础,很长时间以来人们对突触的可塑性研究主要集中在神经元和突触上;而胶质细胞的作用较少受到注意。最近的研究发现胶质细胞也参与突触的构成并影响突触的活动。研究表明中枢神经系统中的胶质细胞包括星形胶质细胞、小胶质细胞和少突胶质细胞可分别通过谷氨酸、丝氨酸、甘氨酸、ATP等信号调节突触的可塑性,从而为突触的可塑性研究提供了新的思路和方向,并有助于阐明突触的发生以及学习与记忆的机制。     

Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase sigma regulates synapse structure, function and plasticity

The mechanisms that regulate synapse formation and maintenance are incompletely understood. In particular, relatively few inhibitors of synapse formation have been identified. Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase σ (RPTPσ), a transmembrane tyrosine phosphatase, is widely expressed by neurons in developing and mature mammalian brain, and functions as a receptor for chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans that inhibits axon regeneration following injury. In this study, we address RPTPσ function in the mature brain. We demonstrate increased axon collateral branching in the hippocampus of RPTPσ null mice during normal aging or following chemically induced seizure, indicating that RPTPσ maintains neural circuitry by inhibiting axonal branching. Previous studies demonstrated a role for pre-synaptic RPTPσ promoting synaptic differentiation during development; however, subcellular fractionation revealed enrichment of RPTPσ in post-synaptic densities. We report that neurons lacking RPTPσ have an increased density of pre-synaptic varicosities in vitro and increased dendritic spine density and length in vivo. RPTPσ knockouts exhibit an increased frequency of miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents, and greater paired-pulse facilitation, consistent with increased synapse density but reduced synaptic efficiency. Furthermore, RPTPσ nulls exhibit reduced long-term potentiation and enhanced novel object recognition memory. We conclude that RPTPσ limits synapse number and regulates synapse structure and function in the mature CNS.     

Neurotrophin signaling among neurons and glia during formation of tripartite synapses

Synapse formation in the CNS is a complex process that involves the dynamic interplay of numerous signals exchanged between pre- and postsynaptic neurons as well as perisynaptic glia. Members of the neurotrophin family, which are widely expressed in the developing and mature CNS and are well-known for their roles in promoting neuronal survival and differentiation, have emerged as key synaptic modulators. However, the mechanisms by which neurotrophins modulate synapse formation and function are poorly understood. Here, we summarize our work on the role of neurotrophins in synaptogenesis in the CNS, in particular the role of these signaling molecules and their receptors, the Trks, in the development of excitatory and inhibitory hippocampal synapses. We discuss our results that demonstrate that postsynaptic TrkB signaling plays an important role in modulating the formation and maintenance of NMDA and GABAA receptor clusters at central synapses, and suggest that neurotrophin signaling coordinately modulates these receptors as part of mechanism that promotes the balance between excitation and inhibition in developing circuits. We also discuss our results that demonstrate that astrocytes promote the formation of GABAergic synapses in vitro by differentially regulating the development of inhibitory presynaptic terminals and postsynaptic GABAA receptor clusters, and suggest that glial modulation of inhibitory synaptogenesis is mediated by neurotrophin-dependent and -independent signaling. Together, these findings extend our understanding of how neuron-glia communication modulates synapse formation, maintenance and function, and set the stage for defining the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which neurotrophins and other cell-cell signals direct synaptogenesis in the developing brain.     

Kinase-independent requirement of EphB2 receptors in hippocampal synaptic plasticity.

During development, Eph receptors mediate the repulsive axon guidance function of ephrins, a family of membrane attached ligands with their own receptor-like signaling potential. In cultured glutamatergic neurons, EphB2 receptors were recently shown to associate with NMDA receptors at synaptic sites and were suggested to play a role in synaptogenesis. Here we show that Eph receptor stimulation in cultured neurons modulates signaling pathways implicated in synaptic plasticity, suggesting cross-talk with NMDA receptor-activated pathways. Mice lacking EphB2 have normal hippocampal synapse morphology, but display defects in synaptic plasticity. In EphB2(-/-) hippocampal slices, protein synthesis-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) was impaired, and two forms of synaptic depression were completely extinguished. Interestingly, targeted expression of a carboxy-terminally truncated form of EphB2 rescued the EphB2 null phenotype, indicating that EphB2 kinase signaling is not required for these EphB2-mediated functions.     

Agrin-induced acetylcholine receptor clustering is mediated by the small guanosine triphosphatases Rac and Cdc42

During neuromuscular junction formation, agrin secreted from motor neurons causes muscle cell surface acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) to cluster at synaptic sites by mechanisms that are insufficiently understood. The Rho family of small guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases), including Rac and Cdc42, can mediate focal reorganization of the cell periphery in response to extracellular signals. Here, we investigated the role of Rac and Cdc42 in coupling agrin signaling to AChR clustering. We found that agrin causes marked muscle-specific activation of Rac and Cdc42 in differentiated myotubes, as detected by biochemical measurements. Moreover, this activation is crucial for AChR clustering, since the expression of dominant interfering mutants of either Rac or Cdc42 in myotubes blocks agrin-induced AChR clustering. In contrast, constitutively active Rac and Cdc42 mutants cause AChR to aggregate in the absence of agrin. By indicating that agrin-dependent activation of Rac and Cdc42 constitutes a critical step in the signaling pathway leading to AChR clustering, these findings suggest a novel role for these Rho-GTPases: the coupling of neuronal signaling to a key step in neuromuscular synaptogenesis.     

DISC1-related signaling pathways in adult neurogenesis of the hippocampus

Disrupted-in-schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) is a multifunctional scaffold protein which plays an important role in neurogenesis and neural development in the adult brain, especially in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus. Accumulated research has unveiled the role of DISC1 in several aspects of neural development and neurogenesis, such as neuronal maturation, proliferation, migration, positioning, differentiation, dendritic growth, axonal outgrowth, and synaptic plasticity. Studies on the function of this protein have explored multiple facets, including variants and missense mutants in genetics, proteins interactivity and signaling pathways in molecular biology, and pathogenesis and treatment targets of major mental illness, and more. In this review, we present several signaling pathways discussed in recent research, such as the AKT signaling pathway, GABA signaling pathway, GSK3β signaling pathway, Wnt signaling pathway, and NMDA-R signaling pathway. DISC1 interacts, directly or indirectly, with these signaling pathways and they co-regulate the process of adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus.     

Reelin induces EphB activation

The integration of newborn neurons into functional neuronal networks requires migration of cells to their final position in the developing brain, the growth and arborization of neuronal processes and the formation of synaptic contacts with other neurons. A central player among the signals that coordinate this complex sequence of differentiation events is the secreted glycoprotein Reelin, which also modulates synaptic plasticity, learning and memory formation in the adult brain. Binding of Reelin to ApoER2 and VLDL receptor, two members of the LDL receptor family, initiates a signaling cascade involving tyrosine phosphorylation of the intracellular cytoplasmic adaptor protein Disabled-1, which targets the neuronal cytoskeleton and ultimately controls the positioning of neurons throughout the developing brain. However, it is possible that Reelin signals interact with other receptor-mediated signaling cascades to regulate different aspects of brain development and plasticity. EphB tyrosine kinases regulate cell adhesion and repulsion-dependent processes via bidirectional signaling through ephrin B transmembrane proteins. Here, we demonstrate that Reelin binds to the extracellular domains of EphB transmembrane proteins, inducing receptor clustering and activation of EphB forward signaling in neurons, independently of the ''classical'' Reelin receptors, ApoER2 and VLDLR. Accordingly, mice lacking EphB1 and EphB2 display a positioning defect of CA3 hippocampal pyramidal neurons, similar to that in Reelin-deficient mice, and this cell migration defect depends on the kinase activity of EphB proteins. Together, our data provide biochemical and functional evidence for signal integration between Reelin and EphB forward signaling.     

Synaptic localization and axonal targeting of agrin secreted by ventral spinal cord neurons in culture

Agrin secreted by motor neurons is a critical signal for postsynaptic differentiation at the developing neuromuscular junction. We used cultures of chick ventral spinal cord neurons with rat myotubes and immunofluorescence with species-specific antibodies to determine the distribution of agrin secreted by neurons and compare it to the distribution of agrin secreted by myotubes. In addition, we determined the distribution of agrin secreted by isolated chick ventral spinal cord neurons and rat motor neurons grown on a substrate that binds agrin. In cocultures, neuronal agrin was concentrated along axons at sites of axon-induced acetylcholine receptor (AChR) aggregation and was found at every such synaptic site, consistent with its role in synaptogenesis. Smaller amounts of agrin were found on dendrites and cell bodies and rarely were associated with AChR aggregation. Muscle agrin, recognized by an antibody against rat agrin, was found at nonsynaptic sites of AChR aggregation but was not detected at synaptic sites, in contrast to neuronal agrin. In cultures of isolated chick neurons or rat motor neurons, agrin was deposited relatively uniformly around axons and dendrites during the first 2-3 days in culture. In older cultures, agrin immunoreactivity was markedly more intense around axons than dendrites, indicating that motor neurons possess an intrinsic, developmentally regulated program to target agrin secretion to axons.     

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase acts through RAC and Cdc42 during agrin-induced acetylcholine receptor clustering

The formation of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is regulated by the nerve-derived heparan sulfate proteoglycan agrin and the muscle-specific kinase MuSK. Agrin induces a signal transduction pathway via MuSK, which promotes the reorganization of the postsynaptic muscle membrane. Activation of MuSK leads to the phosphorylation and redistribution of acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and other postsynaptic proteins to synaptic sites. The accumulation of high densities of AChRs at postsynaptic regions represents a hallmark of NMJ formation and is required for proper NMJ function. Here we show that phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-K) represents a component of the agrin/MuSK signaling pathway. Muscle cells treated with specific PI3-K inhibitors are unable to form full-size AChR clusters in response to agrin and AChR phosphorylation is reduced. Moreover, agrin-induced activation of Rac and Cdc42 is impaired in the presence of PI3-K inhibitors. PI3-K is localized to the postsynaptic muscle membrane consistent with a role during agrin/MuSK signaling. These results put PI3-K downstream of MuSK as regulator of AChR phosphorylation and clustering. Its role during agrin-stimulated Rac and Cdc42 activation suggests a critical function during cytoskeletal reorganizations, which lead to the redistribution of actin-anchored AChRs.