Ammonia induces aquaporin-4 rearrangement in the plasma membrane of cultured astrocytes

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is a water channel protein mainly located in the astroglial plasma membrane, the precise function of which in the brain edema that accompanies hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is unclear. Since ammonia is the main pathogenic agent in HE, its effect on AQP4 expression and distribution in confluent primary astroglial cultures was examined via their exposure to ammonium chloride (1, 3 and 5 mM) for 5 and 10 days. Ammonia induced the general inhibition of AQP4 mRNA synthesis except in the 1 mM/5 day treatment. However, the AQP4 protein content measured was dependent on the method of analysis; an apparent increase was recorded in treated cells in in-cell Western assays, while an apparent reduction was seen with the classic Western blot method, perhaps due to differences in AQP4 aggregation. Ammonia might therefore induce the formation of insoluble AQP4 aggregates in the astroglial plasma membrane. The finding of AQP4 in the pellet of classic Western blot samples, plus data obtained via confocal microscopy, atomic force microscopy (using immunolabeled cells with gold nanoparticles) and scanning electron microscopy, all corroborate this hypothesis. The effect of ammonia on AQP4 seems not to be due to any osmotic effect; identical osmotic stress induced by glutamine and salt had no significant effect on the AQP4 content. AQP4 functional analysis (subjecting astrocytes to a hypo-osmotic medium and using flow cytometry to measure cell size) demonstrated a smaller water influx in ammonia-treated astrocytes suggesting that AQP4 aggregates are representative of an inactive status; however, more confirmatory studies are required to fully understand the functional status of AQP4 aggregates. The present results suggest that ammonia affects AQP4 expression and distribution, and that astrocytes change their expression of AQP4 mRNA as well as the aggregation status of the ensuing protein depending on the ammonia concentration and duration of exposure.     

Inhibition of glutamine synthesis induces glutamate dehydrogenase-dependent ammonia fixation into alanine in co-cultures of astrocytes and neurons

It has been previously demonstrated that ammonia exposure of neurons and astrocytes in co-culture leads to net synthesis not only of glutamine but also of alanine. The latter process involves the concerted action of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and alanine aminotransferase (ALAT). In the present study it was investigated if the glutamine synthetase (GS) inhibitor methionine sulfoximine (MSO) would enhance alanine synthesis by blocking the GS-dependent ammonia scavenging process. Hence, co-cultures of neurons and astrocytes were incubated for 2.5 h with [U-¹³C]glucose to monitor de novo synthesis of alanine and glutamine in the absence and presence of 5.0 mM NH₄Cl and 10 mM MSO. Ammonia exposure led to increased incorporation of label but not to a significant increase in the amount of these amino acids. However, in the presence of MSO, glutamine synthesis was blocked and synthesis of alanine increased leading to an elevated content intra- as well as extracellularly of this amino acid. Treatment with MSO led to a dramatic decrease in glutamine content and increased the intracellular contents of glutamate and aspartate. The large increase in alanine during exposure to MSO underlines the importance of the GDH and ALAT biosynthetic pathway for ammonia fixation, and it points to the use of a GS inhibitor to ameliorate the brain toxicity and edema induced by hyperammonemia, events likely related to glutamine synthesis.     

Lack of association between AQP4 polymorphisms and risk of inflammatory demyelinating disease in a Korean population

Multiple sclerosis (MS) and neuromyelitis optica (NMO) are demyelinating autoimmune inflammatory diseases that affect the central nervous system (CNS). Previous genome-wide or candidate gene studies have suggested that genetic variants might be associated with the risk of MS or NMO. Aquaporin 4 (AQP4) is a commonly distributed water channel in astrocytes of the CNS, and its expression is decreased in NMO lesions due to astrocyte cytotoxicity. Previous studies have suggested the associations of AQP4 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with MS and/or NMO. However, there have been few replication studies in various ethnic populations. This study, as the first of its kind performed in an Asian population, investigated associations of AQP4 SNPs with the risk of inflammatory demyelinating disease (IDD), including MS and NMO, in a Korean population. A total of seven common AQP4 SNPs were selected based on status of linkage disequilibrium (LD), and then genotyped in 178 IDD cases (79 MS and 99 NMO patients) and 237 normal controls. Statistical analyses showed no significant associations between AQP4 SNPs/haplotypes and development of IDD, including MS and NMO (P > 0.05). Further replications in larger cohorts and other ethnic groups are needed.     

Kir4.1 channels regulate swelling of astroglial processes in experimental spinal cord edema

In glial cells, inwardly rectifying K⁺ channels (Kir) control extracellular [K⁺]_o homeostasis by uptake of K⁺ from the extracellular space and release of K⁺ into the microvasculature. Kir channels were also recently implicated in K⁺-associated water influx and cell swelling. We studied the time-dependent expression and functional implication of the glial Kir4.1 channel for astroglial swelling in a spinal cord edema model. In this CNS region, Kir4.1 is expressed on astrocytes from the second postnatal week on and co-localizes with aquaporin 4 (AQP4). Swelling of individual astrocytes in response to osmotic stress and to pharmacological Kir blockade were analyzed by time-lapse-two-photon laser-scanning microscopy in situ . Application of 30% hypotonic solution induced astroglial soma swelling whereas no swelling was observed on astroglial processes or endfeet. Co-application of hypotonic solution and Ba²⁺, a Kir channel blocker, induced prominent swelling of astroglial processes. In Kir4.1−/− mice, however, somatic as well as process swelling was observed upon application of 30% hypotonic solutions. No additional effect was provoked upon co-application with Ba²⁺. Our experiments show that Kir channels prevent glial process swelling under osmotic stress. The underlying Kir channel subunit that controls glial process swelling is Kir4.1, whereas changes of the glial soma are not substantially related to Kir4.1.     

Effect of ammonia on GABA uptake and release in cultured astrocytes

While the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is unclear, there is evidence of enhanced GABAergic neurotransmission in this condition. Ammonia is believed to play a major pathogenetic role in HE. To determine whether ammonia might contribute to abnormalities in GABAergic neurotransmission, its effects on GABA uptake and release were studied in cultured astrocytes, cells that appear to be targets of ammonia neurotoxicity. Acutely, ammonium chloride (5 mM) inhibited GABA uptake by 30%, and by 50-60% after 4-day treatment. GABA uptake inhibition was associated with a predominant decrease in Vmax; the Km was also decreased. Ammonia also enhanced GABA release after 4-day treatment, although such release was initially inhibited. These effects of ammonia (inhibition of GABA uptake and enhanced GABA release) may elevate extracellular levels of GABA and contribute to a dysfunction of GABAergic neurotransmission in HE and other hyperammonemic states.     

Aquaporin 5 knockout mouse lens develops hyperglycemic cataract

The scope of this investigation was to understand the role of aquaporin 5 (AQP5) for maintaining lens transparency and homeostasis. Studies were conducted using lenses of wild-type (WT) and AQP5 knockout (AQP5-KO) mice. Immunofluorescent staining verified AQP5 expression in WT lens sections and lack of expression in the knockout. In vivo and ex vivo, AQP5-KO lenses resembled WT lenses in morphology and transparency. Therefore, we subjected the lenses ex vivo under normal (5.6 mM glucose) and hyperglycemic (55.6 mM glucose) conditions to test for cataract formation. Twenty-four hours after incubation in hyperglycemic culture medium, AQP5-KO lenses showed mild opacification which was accelerated several fold at 48 h; in contrast, WT lenses remained clear even after 48 h of hyperglycemic treatment. AQP5-KO lenses displayed osmotic swelling due to increase in water content. Cellular contents began to leak into the culture medium after 48 h. We reason that water influx through glucose transporters and glucose cotransporters into the cells could mainly be responsible for creating hyperglycemic osmotic swelling; absence of AQP5 in fiber cells appears to cause lack of required water efflux, challenging cell volume regulation and adding to osmotic swelling. This study reveals that AQP5 could play a critical role in lens microcirculation for maintaining transparency and homeostasis, especially by providing protection under stressful conditions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report providing evidence that AQP5 facilitates maintenance of lens transparency and homeostasis by regulating osmotic swelling caused by glucose transporters and cotransporters under hyperglycemic stressful conditions.     

Freeze-Fracture Analysis of Plasma Membranes of CHO Cells Stably Expressing Aquaporins 1-5

Several studies suggest that aquaporin water channels can be identified in membranes by freeze-fracture electron microscopy. For this report, Chinese Hamster ovary cells were stably transfected with cDNAs encoding aquaporins 1–5. Measurement of the osmotic water permeability of the cells confirmed that functional protein was expressed and delivered to the plasma membrane. By freeze-fracture electron microscopy, a 20% increase in intramembrane particle (IMP) density was found in plasma membranes of cells expressing AQP2, 3 and 5, and a 100% increase was measured in AQP1-expressing cells, when compared to mock-transfected cells. On membranes of cells expressing AQP4, large aggregates of IMPs were organized into orthogonal arrays, which occupied 10–20% of the membrane surface. IMP aggregates were never seen in AQP2-transfected cells. Hexagonally packed IMP clusters were detected in ∼5% of the membranes from AQP3-expressing cells. Particle size-distribution analysis of rotary shadowed IMPs showed a significant shift from 13.5 (control cells) to 8.5 nm or less in AQP-expressing cells; size distribution analysis of unidirectionally shadowed IMPs also showed a significant change when compared to control. Some IMPs in AQP expressing cells had features consistent with the idea that aquaporins are assembled as tetramers. The results demonstrate that in transfected CHO cells, AQP transfection modifies the general appearance and number of IMPs on the plasma membrane, and show that only AQP4 assembles into well-defined IMP arrays. Received: 17 March 1998/Revised: 19 June 1998     

Changes in retinal aquaporin-9 (AQP9) expression in glaucoma

The eye contains numerous water channel proteins and the roles of AQPs (aquaporins) in the retina are blurred, especially under disease conditions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression of AQP9 gene and proteins affected by elevated IOP (intraocular pressure) in a rat model of glaucoma induced by intravitreous injection of hypertonic saline into the episcleral veins. The gene and protein expressions of AQP9 were investigated by real-time PCR and Western blotting. The immunoreactive expression of AQP9, AQP4 and GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) in the optic nerve of rats exposed to experimentally elevated IOP was detected by immunofluorescence microscopy. The mRNA and protein expression levels of AQP9 were up-regulated in the retina of an animal model of glaucoma. The immunoreactivities of the AQP9, AQP4 and GFAP were also detected and increased in the optic nerve region. The expression of AQP9 was up-regulated in this glaucoma model and the immunoreactivities of the AQP4 and GFAP were also detected as co-localizing with AQP9 in the optic nerve region, indicating retina ganglion cells were surrounded by activated astrocytes. This may indicate that the injured neurons may rely on the astrocytes. The alterations of AQP expression may compensate the glaucomatous damage.     

Functional down-regulation of volume-regulated anion channels in AQP4 knockdown cultured rat cortical astrocytes

In the brain, the astroglial syncytium is crucially involved in the regulation of water homeostasis. Accumulating evidence indicates that a dysregulation of the astrocytic processes controlling water homeostasis has a pathogenetic role in several brain injuries. Here, we have analysed by RNA interference technology the functional interactions occurring between the most abundant water channel in the brain, aquaporin-4 (AQP4), and the swelling-activated Cl(-) current expressed by cultured rat cortical astrocytes. We show that in primary cultured rat cortical astrocytes transfected with control small interfering RNA (siRNA), hypotonic shock promotes an increase in cellular volume accompanied by augmented membrane conductance mediated by volume-regulated anion channels (VRAC). Conversely, astroglia in which AQP4 was knocked down (AQP4 KD) by transfection with AQP4 siRNA changed their morphology from polygonal to process-bearing, and displayed normal cell swelling but reduced VRAC activity. Pharmacological manipulations of actin cytoskeleton in rat astrocytes, and functional analysis in mouse astroglial cells, which retain their morphology upon knockdown of AQP4, suggest that stellation of AQP4 KD rat cortical astrocytes was not causally linked to reduction of VRAC current. Molecular analysis of possible candidates of swelling-activated Cl(-) current provided evidence that in AQP4 KD astrocytes, there was a down-regulation of chloride channel-2 (CIC-2), which, however, was not involved in VRAC conductance. Inclusion of ATP in the intracellular saline restored VRAC activity upon hypotonicity. Collectively, these results support the view that in cultured astroglial cells, plasma membrane proteins involved in cell volume homeostasis are assembled in a functional platform.     

胆红素脑病SD乳鼠模型中脑水通道蛋白-4表达发生变化

神经细胞水肿是胆红素脑病（bilirubin encephalopathy,BE）发生发展过程中的重要病理变化。水通道蛋白-4（aquaporin-4,AQP4）的表达及分布异常与多种疾病所致细胞毒性脑水肿的发生发展具有密切联系。但胆红素脑病中AQP4的表达变化规律及其在病理进展中的作用尚不清楚。采用7日龄SD大鼠小脑延髓池注射胆红素溶液的方法,建立新生大鼠胆红素脑病模型。胆红素脑病模型根据胆红素作用时间的不同,分为12 h、24 h、48 h、72 h和7 d组。采用HE及尼氏染色,检测各新生大鼠脑组织的病理改变;应用透射电镜(TEM),检测胆红素作用24 h后,鼠脑组织超微结构的变化;应用免疫荧光及Western 印迹,检测 AQP4在脑组织中的表达变化。通过上述实验,以探讨AQP4的表达变化与胆红素所致脑损伤的关系。HE及尼氏染色结果显示,随着胆红素沉积时间的延长,神经细胞逐渐肿胀,细胞间隙增大,尼氏小体数量逐渐减少;电镜结果显示,胆红素脑病24 h后神经细胞线粒体出现肿胀;免疫荧光染色显示,24 h组AQP4的表达范围明显增加,其后表达范围逐渐减少,表达强度也随之减弱;Western 印迹结果显示,AQP4表达在不同时间点呈现先增高后降低的趋势,在24 h达到峰值（24 h组1.38 ± 0.11 vs 对照组0.87 ± 0.21, P＜0.05）,在之后的各时间点上,AQP4的表达呈现下降趋势,而72 h组与7 d组AQP4表达均低于48 h组（P＜0.05）,基本恢复到对照组的表达水平（P＞0.05）。上述结果提示,胆红素脑病中胆红素的毒性作用将引起AQP4表达量的改变,AQP4的表达变化与胆红素脑病中细胞毒性脑水肿的发生相关,并且可能在胆红素脑病脑损伤的进展中发挥作用。     

胆红素脑病SD乳鼠模型中脑水通道蛋白-4表达发生变化

神经细胞水肿是胆红素脑病（bilirubin encephalopathy,BE）发生发展过程中的重要病理变化。水通道蛋白-4（aquaporin-4,AQP4）的表达及分布异常与多种疾病所致细胞毒性脑水肿的发生发展具有密切联系。但胆红素脑病中AQP4的表达变化规律及其在病理进展中的作用尚不清楚。采用7日龄SD大鼠小脑延髓池注射胆红素溶液的方法,建立新生大鼠胆红素脑病模型。胆红素脑病模型根据胆红素作用时间的不同,分为12 h、24 h、48 h、72 h和7 d组。采用HE及尼氏染色,检测各新生大鼠脑组织的病理改变;应用透射电镜(TEM),检测胆红素作用24 h后,鼠脑组织超微结构的变化;应用免疫荧光及Western 印迹,检测 AQP4在脑组织中的表达变化。通过上述实验,以探讨AQP4的表达变化与胆红素所致脑损伤的关系。HE及尼氏染色结果显示,随着胆红素沉积时间的延长,神经细胞逐渐肿胀,细胞间隙增大,尼氏小体数量逐渐减少;电镜结果显示,胆红素脑病24 h后神经细胞线粒体出现肿胀;免疫荧光染色显示,24 h组AQP4的表达范围明显增加,其后表达范围逐渐减少,表达强度也随之减弱;Western 印迹结果显示,AQP4表达在不同时间点呈现先增高后降低的趋势,在24 h达到峰值（24 h组1.38 ± 0.11 vs 对照组0.87 ± 0.21, P＜0.05）,在之后的各时间点上,AQP4的表达呈现下降趋势,而72 h组与7 d组AQP4表达均低于48 h组（P＜0.05）,基本恢复到对照组的表达水平（P＞0.05）。上述结果提示,胆红素脑病中胆红素的毒性作用将引起AQP4表达量的改变,AQP4的表达变化与胆红素脑病中细胞毒性脑水肿的发生相关,并且可能在胆红素脑病脑损伤的进展中发挥作用。     

Combined Effects of Ammonia and Manganese on Astrocytes in Culture

Ammonia has been strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy (HE), and astrocytes appear to be the primary target of ammonia neurotoxicity. Recent work has shown that manganese also plays a role in the pathogenesis of HE and causes astrocyte morphologic and functional changes similar to ammonia. We therefore investigated whether a combination of these compounds could produce additive/synergistic effects. Cultured astrocytes treated with 5 mM ammonia (NH₄Cl) along with 100 M manganese acetate (MnAc) for 3 h showed a 55–65% increase in free radical production over ammonia or manganese alone (P < 0.05). There was also a 50% decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential ( _m) at 24 h following treatment with NH₄Cl (5 mM) plus MnAc (50 M) Pt< 0.05), as compared to ammonia or manganese alone. Astrocytes treated with ammonia or manganese alone for 24 h showed no cell death, as determined by LDH release and light microscopic examination. However, cultures treated with ammonia plus manganese showed 80–90 necrotic cell death as estimated by light microscopy and 59 cell death as determined by LDH release. LDH release by ammonia plus manganese was blocked by the antioxidant superoxide dismutase (25 units/ml) as well as by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor N-nitro-L-argininemethyl ester (500 M). In conclusion, ammonia plus manganese exert additive/synergetic effects on the induction free radicals, mitochondrial inner membrane depolarization and cellular integrity, which may contribute to the tissue injury associated with chronic forms of HE.Special issue dedicated to Lawrence. F. Eng.     

Long-range nonanomalous diffusion of quantum dot-labeled aquaporin-1 water channels in the cell plasma membrane

Aquaporin-1 (AQP1) is an integral membrane protein that facilitates osmotic water transport across cell plasma membranes in epithelia and endothelia. AQP1 has no known specific interactions with cytoplasmic or membrane proteins, but its recovery in a detergent-insoluble membrane fraction has suggested possible raft association. We tracked the membrane diffusion of AQP1 molecules labeled with quantum dots at an engineered external epitope at frame rates up to 91 Hz and over times up to 6 min. In transfected COS-7 cells, >75% of AQP1 molecules diffused freely over ∼7 μm in 5 min, with diffusion coefficient, D_1-3 ∼ 9 × 10⁻¹⁰ cm²/s. In MDCK cells, ∼60% of AQP1 diffused freely, with D_1-3 ∼ 3 × 10⁻¹⁰ cm²/s. The determinants of AQP1 diffusion were investigated by measurements of AQP1 diffusion following skeletal disruption (latrunculin B), lipid/raft perturbations (cyclodextrin and sphingomyelinase), and bleb formation. We found that cytoskeletal disruption had no effect on AQP1 diffusion in the plasma membrane, but that diffusion was increased greater than fourfold in protein de-enriched blebs. Cholesterol depletion in MDCK cells greatly restricted AQP1 diffusion, consistent with the formation of a network of solid-like barriers in the membrane. These results establish the nature and determinants of AQP1 diffusion in cell plasma membranes and demonstrate long-range nonanomalous diffusion of AQP1, challenging the prevailing view of universally anomalous diffusion of integral membrane proteins, and providing evidence against the accumulation of AQP1 in lipid rafts.     

The arginine-facing amino acid residue of the rat aquaporin 1 constriction determines solute selectivity according to its size and lipophilicity

Aquaporins (AQP) are transmembrane channels for small, predominantly uncharged solutes. Their selectivity is partly determined by the aromatic/arginine constriction. Ammonia is similar in size and polarity to water, yet a subset of aquaporins distinguishes between the two. We mutated the constriction of water-selective rat AQP1 to mimic that of the ammonia-permeable human AQP8 by replacing Phenylalanine 56 with histidine, Histidine 180 with isoleucine, and Cysteine 189 with glycine, alone and in combination. Only AQP1 mutants including the H180I exchange increased the ammonia and methylamine tolerance of yeast. In a second set of mutations, we replaced Histidine 180 with alanine, leucine, methionine, phenylalanine, asparagine or glutamine. AQP1 H180A was equivalent to AQP1 H180I. AQP1 H180L increased ammonia but not methylamine tolerance of yeast. AQP1 mutants with methionine, phenylalanine, asparagine or glutamine in place of Histidine 180, increased neither ammonia nor methylamine tolerance of yeast. All mutants conducted water, as judged by osmotic assays with yeast sphaeroplasts. We propose that the arginine-facing amino acid residue is the most versatile selector of aquaporin constrictions, excluding Escherichia coli glycerol facilitator-type aquaporins.     

Nitrogen excretion by the sheep abomasal parasite Teladorsagia circumcincta

Excretion of nitrogenous substances by Teladorsagia circumcincta was investigated during incubation of L3 in phosphate buffer for up to 30 h and adult worms for 4-6 h. Ammonia was the main excretory product, with about 20% urea. For the first 4-6 h, ammonia excretion by L3 was temperature dependent, directly proportional to the number of larvae, but independent of the pH or strength of the phosphate buffer. Later, ammonia excretion slowed markedly in L3 and adults and reversed to net uptake in L3 by 30 h. An initial external ammonia concentration of 600 μM did not alter the pattern or magnitude of excretion. Re-uptake of ammonia did not occur at extremes of pH or low buffer strength and was slightly reduced at the highest external concentrations. Ammonium transporters and enzymes of glutamate metabolism, including glutamate dehydrogenase, glutamine synthetase and possibly glutamate synthase, are worthy of further investigation as anthelmintic targets.     

Mannitol induces selective astroglial death in the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus following status epilepticus

In the present study, we addressed the question of whether treatment with mannitol, an osmotic diuretic, affects astrogliovascular responses to status epilepticus (SE). In saline-treated animals, astrocytes exhibited reactive astrogliosis in the CA1-3 regions 2-4 days after SE. In the mannitol-treated animals, a large astroglial empty zone was observed in the CA1 region 2 days after SE. This astroglial loss was unrelated to vasogenic edema formation. There was no difference in SE-induced neuronal loss between saline- and mannitol-treated animals. Furthermore, mannitol treatment did not affect astroglial loss and vasogenic edema formation in the dentate gyrus and the piriform cortex. These findings suggest that mannitol treatment induces selective astroglial loss in the CA1 region independent of vasogenic edema formation following SE. These findings support the hypothesis that the susceptibility of astrocytes to SE is most likely due to the distinctive heterogeneity of astrocytes independent of hemodynamics. [BMB Reports 2015; 48(9): 507-512]     

Aquaporin 3 and 8 are down-regulated in TNBS-induced rat colitis

Aquaporins (AQPs) plays an important role in transcellular water movement, but the AQPs expression profile has not been demonstrated in 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis which closely mimics human Crohn’s disease (CD) histopathologically. To solve the problem, 30 female Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into a model group (n = 18), an ethanol control group (n = 6) and a normal control group (n = 6). On day 1, the rats in the model group received TNBS + 50% ethanol via the rectum, while the ethanol control rats received an equal volume of 50% ethanol and the normal control rats did not receive any treatment. All rats were sacrificed on day 7, and ileum, proximal colon and distal colon specimens were obtained to examine the alteration in AQP3 and AQP8 using real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry. As a result, exposure to TNBS + ethanol resulted in a marked decrease in both the mRNA and protein expression of AQP3 and AQP8, with the exception of AQP8 protein which was negative in the distal colon in all three groups. These reductions in AQP3 and AQP8 were accompanied by an increase in intestinal inflammation and injury. The results obtained here implied that both AQP3 and AQP8 may be involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease.     

The dual face of connexin-based astroglial Ca communication: A key player in brain physiology and a prime target in pathology

For decades, studies have been focusing on the neuronal abnormalities that accompany neurodegenerative disorders. Yet, glial cells are emerging as important players in numerous neurological diseases. Astrocytes, the main type of glia in the central nervous system , form extensive networks that physically and functionally connect neuronal synapses with cerebral blood vessels. Normal brain functioning strictly depends on highly specialized cellular cross-talk between these different partners to which Ca^2 +, as a signaling ion, largely contributes. Altered intracellular Ca^2 + levels are associated with neurodegenerative disorders and play a crucial role in the glial responses to injury. Intracellular Ca^2 + increases in single astrocytes can be propagated toward neighboring cells as intercellular Ca^2 + waves, thereby recruiting a larger group of cells. Intercellular Ca²⁺ wave propagation depends on two, parallel, connexin (Cx) channel-based mechanisms: i) the diffusion of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate through gap junction channels that directly connect the cytoplasm of neighboring cells, and ii) the release of paracrine messengers such as glutamate and ATP through hemichannels (‘half of a gap junction channel’). This review gives an overview of the current knowledge on Cx-mediated Ca^2 + communication among astrocytes as well as between astrocytes and other brain cell types in physiology and pathology, with a focus on the processes of neurodegeneration and reactive gliosis. Research on Cx-mediated astroglial Ca^2 + communication may ultimately shed light on the development of targeted therapies for neurodegenerative disorders in which astrocytes participate. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Calcium signaling in health and disease. Guest Editors: Geert Bultynck, Jacques Haiech, Claus W. Heizmann, Joachim Krebs, and Marc Moreau.